Anna Komnene (c. 1083-1153)
“That is the way of all the barbarians: their mouths gape wide for gifts and money, but they have no intention whatever of doing the things for which the money is offered.”
Within the legend and folklore recorded about ancient Egypt by Strabo (c. 64 BCE-24 CE) and Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE), an odd tale can be found referencing a city called Rhinocolura, which is thought to have been located around modern-day El-Arish, Egypt. The founding of the city was attributed to a certain King Actisanes, a legendary figure with dubious historical authenticity. Whatever the case, this Actisanes was said to have been an Ethiopian who came to power in ancient Egypt. A stickler for law and order, he allegedly held mass criminal trials of defendants from all over the realm. Those who were found guilty in these large-scale prosecutions, it was said, did not face execution after their trials. Yet, they also were not released without punishment. Instead, the criminals were supposedly given a physical mark of their guilt and then were subsequently transported off to a penal colony. Diodorus Siculus recorded the tale, writing, “he took all who had been judged guilty, and cutting off their noses, settled them in a colony on the edge of the desert, founding the city which was called Rhinocolura [clipped nose] after the lot of its inhabitants” (The Library of History, Book I, chapter 60). Of course, after later generations replaced the original settlers, the people of Rhinocolura would have looked like any other average ancient Egyptian. The name for the colony, however, stuck.
Written by C. Keith Hansley.
Picture Attribution: (Photograph of a wall from the Temple of Horus, Edfu, taken by Gary Todd, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and WorldHistoryPics.com).
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This image, created by Arthur Rackham (c. 1867–1939), was produced for a 1911 translation of Richard Wager’s Siegfried & the Twilight of the Gods. Rackham’s illustration featured here, like Wagner’s work that it accompanied, was inspired by Norse and Germanic legends about a mighty hero named Siegfried (in Germanic sources) or Sigurd (in Norse sagas and poems). In particular, this scene involves Siegfried/Sigurd’s defeat of a poisonous dragon named Fafnir. The Germanic epic, Nibelungenlied, and the Icelandic Saga of the Volsungs both label the hero as a dragon-slayer, but the saga gave the most vivid account of the hero’s ambush of the dragon. As told by the saga, the Norse god, Odin, advised Siegfried/Sigurd to dig pits in front of the giant serpent’s paths and to strike at its heart from underneath. The hero followed the god’s advice and the following scene unfolded:
“When the worm crawled to the water the earth quaked mightily, so that all the ground nearby shook. He blew poison over all the path before him, but Sigurd was neither afraid of nor concerned by the din. And when the serpent crawled over the pit, Sigurd plunged the sword up under the left shoulder, so that it sank to the hilt. Then Sigurd leapt up out of the ditch, and drew the sword out of the serpent. His arms were all bloody to the shoulder” (Saga of the Volsungs, chapter 18).
Such is the scene that Arthur Rackham re-creates—the act of Siegfried/Sigurd plunging his sword home after he successfully ambushed the mythical creature. In the saga, the hero then ate the dragon’s heart, a meal that granted him great wisdom and the ability to talk to birds. The Nibelungenlied, alternatively, told that Siegfried/Sigurd bathed in the dragon’s blood, which made his skin as hard as horn.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
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Jokul (character set in 9th-century Norway)
“Bad counsel turns out badly.”
Around the year 408 BCE, Athenian forces led by Alcibiades, Theramenes, and Thrasyllus upped their pressure on the Peloponnesian-Persian partnership by maneuvering troops for a siege of Chalcedon, an important city along the Bosporus. Defending the region was a Spartan general named Hippocrates, and the Persian satrap, Pharnabazus, was also in the vicinity. Despite the presence of these two leaders on the defense, the locals of Chalcedon apparently did not have the greatest faith that their city and property would be adequately defended. As told by the contemporaneous scholar and warrior, Xenophon (c. 420-350 BCE), worried people in Chalcedon allegedly packed up their valuables and handed the treasure over to trusted persons in the nearby Bithynian community. This exodus of wealth, it seems, was successfully completed before the Athenians could effectively deploy in the regions. Yet, the move by Chalcedon had not gone unnoticed.
As the story goes, the Athenian leader, Alcibiades, decided to take a detour before he fully committed to the siege of Chalcedon. According to Xenophon, Alcibiades “ordered the ships to sail after him along the coast and, taking the cavalry and a few hoplites with him, went to the Bithynians and demanded that they should give up the property…They accordingly handed it over, and Alcibiades, after making a treaty with them, came back to camp with the booty” (Hellenica, I.3.3). Therefore, Chalcedon’s hopes of hiding their wealth from the besieging army turned out to be a bust.
Although the above Bithynians opted for negotiation, the Athenian forces were still facing plenty of resistance at Chalcedon. Hippocrates, the Spartan general, evidently was caught within the siege of Chalcedon, and he took over leadership of the forces in the city. Pharnabazus, on the other hand, was outside the siegeworks, and the Athenians set up stockades in a way that kept the Persians from offering any effective assistance to Chalcedon. Despite Pharnabazus’ inability to maneuver in a helpful manner, Hippocrates launched an ambitious assault with the city garrison against the besiegers. The sortie failed, however, and Hippocrates was killed in the battle. His death, although demoralizing, did not cause Chalcedon to fall. Instead, the garrison maintained enough discipline to withdraw back into their city and keep up the defense. Now that Hippocrates was dead, Pharnabazus became the lead negotiator on behalf of Chalcedon. He negotiated a truce between the two sides, in which Athens took no more hostile actions against the city, in exchange for a monetary payment from Persia, as well as the resumption of tribute payments by Chalcedon to Athens. As for Chalcedon’s wealth that Alcibiades had seized from the Bithynians, Athens likely held on to that.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
Picture Attribution: (Two-handled bowl, Attic, c. 550 BC, exhibited in the Martin von Wagner Museum in Wurzburg, Germany, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).
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This illustration, created by the German artist Joseph Martin Kronheim (c. 1810–1896), depicts the final moments of King Edward the Martyr of England, who ascended to the throne in 975. He was one of two sons fathered by King Edgar the Peaceful (r. 957-975). When King Edward became the ruler of England, he was reportedly only thirteen years of age, and his position was precarious, as his stepmother, Queen Ælfthryth (or Elfthritha), was an ambitious woman whose son, Æthelred, was next in line to the throne.
Unfortunately, Edward’s reign was destabilized by natural disasters such as famines, as well as several incidents that caused superstitious fear, including untimely collapses of buildings and a sighting of a comet, all of which emboldened Edward’s enemies. Assassins finally struck in 978, successfully murdering the young king. Although there was no definitive proof, it was widely believed in England that Edward’s stepmother was involved. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle refrained from openly accusing the queen, but later chronicles were less hesitant. The Chronicle of Florence of Worcester (d. 1118), was one such source that implicated the queen, writing, “Edward, king of England, was foully murdered at Corvesgeate (Corfe), at the instigations of his step-mother, queen Elfthritha, and was buried at Wareham without royal pomp” (chronicle entry for year 978). Such is the scene that Joseph Martin Kronheim depicts in the illustration above. It shows, Queen Ælfthryth and her henchmen assassinating Edward to clear the way for Ælfthryth’s own son, Æthelred the Unready (r. 978-1016). During Æthelred’s chaotic reign, England would become overwhelmed by Viking raids and invasions by the Danes.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
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Jonathan Swift (c. 1667-1745)
“Whoever could make two ears of corn or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country than the whole race of politicians put together.”
Around the year 587, an intriguing troupe of figures entered the vicinity of Tours. Leading the group was a man named Desiderius, who was fond of tunics and goat-fur hoods. The rest of the party seemed to be his guards and servants, playing a supporting role for their leader. Desiderius claimed to be a healer, and when he set up his camp in the region, he let it be known that he was open for business. If asked about his methods, he apparently was quite boastful and known to embellish—one of his explanations was that he discovered his cures through divine, mystical visions. Putting aside the grandiose banter, however, Desiderius’ approach to healing might have been something akin to the work of chiropractors and physical therapists. Gregory of Tours (c. 539-594), the local bishop and historian of the region, reported with distaste on Desiderius’ healings:
“Those who were paralysed or disabled by some other infirmity he ordered to be stretched forcibly, as if he could restore by his own brute strength men whom he was unable to cure by the intervention of divine power. Some of his helpers would seize a patient’s hands and some would tug at other parts of his body, until it seemed that his sinews must snap” (Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, IX.6).
Due to Bishop Gregory’s bias against Desiderius, it is difficult to determine the self-proclaimed healer’s skill and motivations. Desiderius apparently showed enough results in the beginning of his time in Tours to draw a large number of patients to his makeshift clinic. Yet, according to the aforementioned bishop, several of the people that Desiderius treated in Tours eventually died during, or soon after, their visit to the healer. It should also be said that Bishop Gregory accused Desiderius of being a conman who practiced necromancy and other forms of dark magic. Whatever the case, Tours eventually sided with their bishop and turned against Desiderius. He was banished from the region, never to be seen again.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
Picture Attribution: (St Anthony at Padua Healing a Youth, painted by Sebastiano Ricci (1659–1734), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).
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This painting, by the Dutch-British artist Lawrence Alma-Tadema (c. 1836–1912), envisions a scene from the early life of Moses—the famous Hebrew prophet and leader who is featured in the Book of Exodus. As the story goes, Moses was born at a time when the pharaoh of Egypt was ordering all male Hebrew newborn children in his realm to be put to death. Instead of following this order, Moses’ family opted to leave the child by the bank of the Nile, releasing him into the care of fate and nature. What reportedly happened next was told in the Book of Exodus:
“But when she [Moses’ mother] could hide him no longer, she got a papyrus basket for him and coated it with tar and pitch. Then she placed the child in it and put it among the reeds along the bank of the Nile. His sister stood at a distance to see what would happen to him. Then Pharaoh’s daughter went down to the Nile to bathe, and her attendants were walking along the riverbank. She saw the basket among the reeds and sent her female slave to get it. She opened it and saw the baby. He was crying, and she felt sorry for him… and he became her son” (Exodus 2: 3-10, NIV translation).
Such is the scene that Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicted in his painting. It shows the moment just after the basket was retrieved from the riverbank, with the pharaoh’s daughter looking on over the abandoned infant. According to tradition, Moses would go on to be raised and educated in Egyptian high society. Yet, he would eventually return to his roots, becoming one of the most influential prophets and leaders of the Hebrew people.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
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Chuang Tzu (c. 370-287 BCE)
“Do not reject what is of Heaven, do not neglect what is of man, and the people will be close to the attainment of Truth.”
