Canaan refers to an ancient collection of city-states and peoples located approximately in Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria, who all shared languages from the ancient West Semitic linguistic family. Their alphabets, writing styles, and literary cultures (such as poetry format) were quite similar, and they shared a generally common pantheon of gods, albeit with regional biases toward one god or another. Prior to the 20th century, there was very little information about the Canaanite (or West Semitic) religion. Up to that point, evidence had consisted mainly of hostile references in the Bible, inaccurate assumptions from Greek and Roman authors, and vague fragmentary clues discovered in the tombs of cultures related to the Canaanites, such as the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. Everything changed, however, when the remains of the Kingdom of Ugarit (which fell around 1200 BCE) were re-discovered at Ras Shamra, Syria, in 1928. After archaeologist went to work on the site, a treasure trove of Canaanite cultural material was uncovered, including a vast archive of inscribed clay tablets with contents including the kingdom’s governmental documents (laws, diplomatic correspondence, and temple logs), along with medical texts and materials concerning language (including the complete Ugaritic alphabet and a thesaurus for corresponding foreign words). Most important for this article, tablets were also discovered with detailed stories about the Canaanite gods and goddesses. Prior to this discovery, sources such as the Bible provided references to only a scarce few Canaanite deities, such as the high-god El (the shared Canaanite and early Hebrew name for God the Father and God the Creator), along with Baal, Astarte, Asherah, and perhaps the serpentine sea monsters, like Leviathan, that lurked in the depths. Thankfully for posterity and history, Ugarit’s unearthed archive has vastly broadened the Canaanite pantheon, providing many new names and descriptions for the heavenly host surrounding El. This particular list will contain more than fifty of the Canaanite religious entities.

Categorizing the Canaanite deities is a complicated process, as there seemed to be different factions or entourages with members that overlapped. For instance, El and his consort, Asherah, presided over a broad coalition, providing relatively fair treatment and favor to benevolent and destructive deities, alike, going so far as to cultivate times of truce and peace so that the gods of differing temperaments could mingle from time to time in harmony. Brief peaceful moments aside, there were also times of great disharmony among the diverse deities. Even if El loved most of the gods, few of the other godly beings shared his spirit of universal coexistence. Rivalry and feuds ran rampant in the pantheon. In particular, Baal and his faction waged war on the monstrous deities of the sea and on the god of death. Such wars among the gods impacted both the heavens and the Earth, forcing deities to take sides or otherwise intervene in the feuds.

Readers should remember, while perusing the following list, that the godly factions, alliances, and hierarchies presented below are largely based on the Ugaritic cultural interpretation, and other Canaanite cities likely had differing views on the hierarchies and cliques of the deities. Specifically, Baal was the patron god of Ugarit, and the Ugaritic versions of the Canaanite myths naturally presented their patron, Baal, as a friendly rival and near-equal of the traditional high-god, El. Many other cities, however, likely viewed the relationship of Baal and El differently in their own versions of the myths. Similarly, other regions likely differed from Ugaritic tradition in the way that they arranged some of the friendships, alliances, and relationships of the West Semitic gods. Nevertheless, the Ugaritic tablets are the only comprehensive accounts of Canaanite mythology that have yet been discovered. For the sake of this list, we will start by presenting the deities aligned with Baal, then move on to the faction of the sea god, and finally, we will finish with El’s broad camp of close allies and neutral associates.

 

Baal’s Faction

(Cylinder seal likely depicting Baal and Resheph, dated c. 18th–17th century BCE, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and the MET)

Baal
In Canaanite mythology, Baal was a storm god associated with lightning, clouds, rain, and the life-sustaining properties that come from fresh water. Like most ancient sky and lightning gods, Baal was one of the highest-ranking deities in the hierarchy of his pantheon. In the Kingdom of Ugarit, Baal’s influence was nearly equal to that of the high-god, El, and the two eventually came to operate in what seemed to be a complicated co-rule scheme. Baal and his faction were known to sometimes get frustrated and rude with El, but, even in Ugaritic tradition, Baal never completely lost all of his deference to the high-god. Notably, Baal often sought permission from El before undertaking significant tasks. The storm god was a deity with many epithets and titles, including: Baal the Conqueror, Prince Baal, the Most High, Rider on the Clouds, and Lord of the Earth. His importance as a god of rain, sustaining flora and fauna, was illustrated in religious passages such as:

“Now Baal will provide his enriching rain,
provide a rich watering in a downpour;
and he will sound his voice in the clouds,
flash his lightning to the earth.
Let him complete his house of cedar!
Let him construct his house of bricks!
Let it be announced to Baal the Conqueror:”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 5, approximately between lines 5-15).

This sentiment of Baal providing prosperity and an age of plenty was reiterated in further passages such as:

“…if Baal the Conqueror lives,
if the Prince, the Lord of the Earth, has revived,
in the dream of El the Kind, the Compassionate,
in the vision of the Creator of Creatures,
the heavens rain down oil,
the wadis run with honey;
then I will know Baal the Conqueror lives,
that the Prince, the Lord of the
Earth, has revived.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, column 3, approximately between lines 1-10).

In addition to being a storm god whose waters brought life, Baal was also an accomplished warrior who conquered territory and battled against gods and monsters. Notably, Baal was known to have fought the sea god, Yamm (along with his allies), as well as Mot, the god of Death. In many of his battles, the storm god was aided by his fearsome sister, Anat, but Baal was often given the credit. On some of his victories, the religious texts stated:

“…you killed Litan, the Fleeing Serpent,
finished off the Twisting Serpent,
the seven-headed monster…”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 1, approximately between lines 1-10).

Further foes defeated by Baal were listed later on in the Uagaritic tablets:

“Baal seized Asherah’s sons;
he struck Rabbim on the shoulder;
he struck Waves with his club;
he trampled burning Death to the ground.
Baal returned to his royal throne,
to his resting place, the seat of his dominion.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 5, approximately between lines 1-10).

Curiously, many of Baal’s enemies were sons of the high-god, El, and he also was a scourge to the sea-aligned family of El’s consort, Asherah. Yet, Baal had excuses for some of his actions, because many of the sea deities were monsters. It was also simply natural that many of Baal’s godly foes would turn out to be El’s offspring, since the high-god was the Creator deity who fathered a majority of the gods, both good and bad. Offspring hostilities aside, Baal never directly attacked El or Asherah. Instead, Baal and El seemed to have had an adopted father-son relationship, and they called each other by their adopted names. It was also said that Baal and his entire immediate family lived for a time under El’s roof before a proper godly house was built for the storm god. Similarly, Baal evidently had good relations with most of the other major gods, at least besides the death god, Mot. According to the Ugaritic tradition, important upper-echelon deities like Astarte and Kothar-wa-Hasis aided, supported, and cheered on Baal’s exploits, and the main Canaanite godly couple, El and Asherah, were also usually won over to Baal’s causes. Much more can be said of Baal, but as many of the gods featured below will be his family, companions or enemies, further details will be preserved for their respective entries.

Dagan
Whereas El and Baal had an adoptive relationship, a different deity known as Dagan (or Dagon to the Philistines) was said to have been the storm god’s true biological father. Unfortunately, little is known about Dagan, besides that he was likely associated with rain and grain. In the Ugaritic texts, his name often comes up as an epithet or phrase following a mentioning of Baal. For instance, Dagan’s name was included in a description of sacrifices:

“He raised his hands to heaven,
sacrificed to the Bull, his father El;
he served Baal with his sacrifice,
the son of Dagan with his game.”
(Kirta, Tablet 1, column 4, approximately between lines 5-10).

Unfortunately, statements such as these—brief statements that Dagan was Baal’s father—make up the bulk of what is said about this enigmatic god in the existent and translated Ugaritic tablets. His association with rain and grain has largely been derived through analysis of his name, for Dagan, as a word, may have evoked those concepts.

Anat
Anat (or Anath) was a goddess of war and hunting who also had some associations with love. In the Ugaritic texts, she was often titled Maiden Anat or the Mistress of the Peoples. Bloodthirsty and fierce, Anat was the incredibly loyal sister of Baal. She was presumably another child of Dagan, but her family life rarely gained any further elaboration besides her sibling relationship with the storm god. Physically, she was described as lovely and youthful. It was a compliment if a woman was told that her “loveliness is like Anat’s” (Kirta, Tablet 1, Column 3, approximately lines 41-42). Another curious bit of trivia was that Anat was supposedly one of the “two wet nurses of the gods” (Kirta, Tablet 2, Column 2, approximately line 29). On a personality note, Anat had the most colorful character, by far, of all the Canaanite gods and goddesses. Headstrong, violent, and argumentative, she was not afraid of bullying her fellow deities. Like Baal, Anat had a complicated adopted child relationship with the high-god, El, and she was known to give attitude from time to time with the high-god and his consort. El commented on Anat’s unbending and persistent nature in the Ugaritic tablets:

“But El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
‘I know you, daughter, how angry you can be;
among goddesses there is no restraining you.
Leave, my unscrupulous daughter;
you will store it up inside you,
set your heart on whatever you desire;
whoever resists you will be crushed.’
Maiden Anat left;”
(Kirta, Tablet 2, Column 1, approximately lines 15-20).

Anat was not all talk—she was an incredibly competent and deadly deity. Anat was a talented huntress and a brutal warrior goddess who battled and triumphed over many monsters and gods. Her traits were not all negative. She loved her brother, and most of her battles were done specifically on Baal’s behalf or to otherwise further his interests. Therefore, she was not simply violent for violence’s sake. But she was, nevertheless, a particularly vicious fighter whenever she entered a battlefield. Anat’s tendencies for extreme and excessive bloodshed were graphically illustrated in the Ugaritic tablets:

“And behold, Anat battled in the valley,
she fought between the two cities:
She killed people of the coast,
she annihilated men of the east.
Heads rolled under her like balls,
hands around her like locusts,
warrior hands like swarms of grasshoppers.
She fastened heads to her back,
she tied hands to her belt.
She harvested knee-deep in soldiers’ blood,
up to her thighs in warriors’ gore;
with a staff she drove off her enemies,
with the string of her bow her opponents.”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 2, approximately between lines 5-20).

In terms of direct strength and deadliness, it could be argued that Anat was more powerful than Baal. Both siblings faced off against the death god, Mot, and while Baal was at one point swallowed by the underworld god, it was mighty Anat who overwhelmingly defeated the god of death, allowing Baal to return to the realm of the living. On Anat’s clash with the death god, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Maiden Anat approached him.
Like the heart of a cow for her calf,
like the heart of a ewe for her lamb,
so was Anat’s heart for Baal.
She seized El’s son Death:
with a sword she split him;
with a sieve she winnowed him;
with fire she burned him;
with millstones she ground him;
​in the fields she sowed him.
Birds ate his flesh;
fowl consumed his parts;
flesh cried out to flesh!”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 2, approximately between lines 25-38).

Like with Baal, much more could be said of Anat’s strength and her exploits, but as many of her foes are included in the of list of deities below, we will hold off until the opportune moment to mention any more of her battles. Nevertheless, after making bloodbaths of her enemies (many of which, unfortunately, were children of El and Asherah), Anat could put the violence behind her and enjoy herself. Between battles, she was known to be quite cleanly and she even put on ancient beauty products when she had time and opportunity. In another curious twist to her character, Anat was also a musician known to play the lyre.

Yatpan
Whereas Anat was the champion of Baal, Yatpan was a henchman of Anat. In the Ugaritic tablets, he was described as “Yatpan, the Lady’s Warrior” (Aqhat, Tablet 2, column 4, approximately line 6). He was evidently a magical being, and was known to have the power to shapeshift—a common ability shared by many ancient gods and goddesses (including Anat). As expected of an enforcer in Anat’s employ, Yatpan was a brutal killer. In the Ugaritic tablets, a scene was presented of Yatpan murdering a hero named Aqhat. This killing occurred after the hero had made the fatal mistake of refusing to hand over his cherished bow and arrows to covetous Anat. The text stated:

“She took Yatpan, the Lady’s Warrior,
she put him in her pouch like a hawk,
in her bag like a bird.
As Aqhat sat down to eat,
the son of Danel to his meal,
vultures hovered over him,
a flock of birds watched.
Among the vultures hovered Anat;
she set him over Aqhat.
He struck him twice on the skull,
three times over the ear;
he made his blood run like a slaughterer,
run to his knees like a butcher.
His breath went out like wind,
his spirit like a breeze,”
(Aqhat, Tablet 2, Column 4, approximately between lines 25-40).

In the Ugaritic tablets, Yatpan had little authority on his own, and was not one of the main gods of the pantheon. His role was that of the henchman, one of the war goddess’ goons involved in her dirty work.

Gapn, Ugar, and Galmat
Gapn and Ugar were messenger gods in the Canaanite pantheon of deities. In the Ugaritic tablets, they seemed to specifically serve Baal’s group, bringing information to, from, and in-between members of Baal’s faction. If Baal wanted to send a message or issue a command to his allies, then Gapn and Ugar were the gods he would call on. They functioned a bit like angels, bringing the tidings of the gods wherever the information needed to go. In Anat’s case, Gapn and Ugar usually brought her tiresome and troubling news, for the messenger gods’ arrival usually meant that Baal was in peril and that she needed to go off and challenge more gods or slaughter more foes. Anat’s anxiety at seeing the arrival of the messenger gods was described in the Ugaritic texts:

“As soon as Anat saw the gods,
her feet shook,
her back convulsed,
her face broke out in sweat,
her joints trembled,
her vertebrae weakened.
She raised her voice and declared:
‘Why have Gapn and Ugar come?
What enemy has risen against Baal,
what foe against the Rider on the Clouds?”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 3, approximately between lines 30-46).

Besides their role as messengers, it is also known that Gapn and Ugar were related to a female deity named Galmat, whose name connotes darkness. An explicit description of their relationship has not been discovered, but the scholarly community assumes Galmat may have been the mother of Gapn and Ugar.

Pidray, Tallay, and Arsay
Pidray, Tallay, and Arsay were goddesses who lived and served within Baal’s household. Their relationship with the storm god was extremely close, but relatively undefined. Baal called them his “girls” and his “maids,” and they were beloved by both Baal and Anat. In the Ugaritic texts, it was written:

“Baal looked at his girls,
he set his eye on Pidray, maid of light,
also on Tallay, maid of rain.”
(Baal, Tablet 3, column 1, approximately between lines 20-25).

Similarly, it was written of Anat:

“…she set her lyre to her chest,
for a song of the love of Baal the Conqueror,
the love of Pidray, maid of light,
the desire of Tallay, maid of rain,
the love of Arsay, maid of the wide world.”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 3, approximately between lines 5-9).

Pidray, Tallay, and Arsay, like Baal and Anat, were treated well and given shelter by the high-god couple, El and Asherah. In the time before the storm god had a place of his own, Baal, his sister, and their curious maids all lived under El’s roof. This living arrangement was described in the Ugaritic tablets:

“But Baal has no house like the other gods,
no court like Asherah’s sons:
El’s home is his son’s shelter,
Lady Asherah of the Sea’s home,
the home of Pidray, maid of light,
the shelter of Tallay, maid of rain,
the home of Arsay, maid of the wide world,
the home of the beautiful brides.’”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 4, approximately between lines 45-55).

Whereas Anat frequently journeyed around the world and interacted with others, Pidray, Tallay, and Arsay—at least in the stories preserved—kept themselves to Baal’s household. Little is known about their characters besides the associations their names and titles provide. Pidray, the maid of light, had a name that evoked mist and clouds. The maid of rain, Tallay’s, name connotated drops of dew. Finally, Arsay, the maid of the wide world, may have had a name that harkened both to the earth and underworld. Naturally, Baal—the death-fighting god of storms, lightning, and fertility—shared these associations with his maids.

Ilisha and the Herald Goddesses
Although other gods served as messengers, a deity known as Ilisha was the main herald of the Canaanite pantheon. It was a family affair, as Ilisha’s wives were also involved in the herald profession. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“He called to Ilisha, the herald god,
Ilisha, the herald of Baal’s house,
and his wives, the herald goddesses.”
(Kirta, Tablet 3, column 4, approximately lines 1-12).

As the quote conveys, Ilisha was closely aligned with Baal’s faction in the Ugaritic version of Canaanite mythology. In the Ugaritic tablets, he is repeatedly mentioned as having been specifically the herald of Baal’s house, but, outside of the theological influence of the Kingdom of Ugarit, the herald god, Ilisha, and his herald goddesses may have been less directly linked to Baal.

Astarte
Astarte was a major goddess of fertility and love, with some astral elements mixed in. She was described as being beautiful and youthful, and, alongside Anat, Astarte was described as being one of “the two wet nurses of the gods” (Kirta, Tablet 2, Column 2, approximately lines 29). Due to Astarte’s youthful looks and attractiveness, a woman was receiving a compliment if she was told “her beauty is like Astarte’s” (Kirta, Tablet 1, Column 3, approximately lines 42). Her more astral aspects led to her to be called the Queen of Heaven, a title that Astarte shared with her Mesopotamian counterpart and fellow fertility goddess, Ishtar. Worshippers of the Queen of Heaven were featured in the Bible. On such worshippers in ancient Judah and Israel, the author of the Book of Jeremiah wrote, “Do you not see what they are doing in the towns of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem? The children gather wood, the fathers kindle fire, and the women knead dough, to make cakes for the queen of heaven, and they pour out drink offerings to other gods, to provoke me to anger” (Jeremiah 7.17-18). After this quote, when the worshippers of the Queen of Heaven were challenged by Jeremiah, they responded in this way:

“’As for the word that you have spoken to us in the name of the Lord, we are not going to listen to you. Instead, we will do everything that we have vowed, make offerings to the queen of heaven and pour out libations to her, just as we and our ancestors, our kings and our officials, used to do in the towns of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem. We used to have plenty of food and prospered and saw no misfortune. But from the time we stopped making offerings to the queen of heaven and pouring out libations to her, we have lacked everything and have perished by the sword and by famine.’ And the women said, ‘Indeed we will go on making offerings to the queen of heaven and pouring out libations to her; do you think that we made cakes for her, marked with her image, and poured out libations to her without our husbands’ being involved?’” (Jeremiah 44.16-19).

Astarte’s character was not exclusively about beauty, fertility and love. She was also a goddess associated with hunting and war. Tales in the Ugaritic tablets portrayed Astarte as a close friend of the bloodthirsty goddess Anat, and as the two were both huntresses, they often went on trips together. For example, one Ugaritic tablet stated, “Anat and Astarte went hunting…” (El’s Drinking Party, tablet front, approximately between lines 23-24). Astarte, at least in the Ugaritic writings, was also one of the most vocally enthusiastic supporters of Baal, continually cheering on his victories in public shows of support. The tablets described her cheers:

“Astarte shouted to him by name:
‘Hail, Baal the Conqueror!
Hail, Rider on the Clouds!
Prince Sea is our captive,
Judge River is our captive.’”
(Baal, Tablet 2, column 4, approximately between lines 25-30).

Besides just cheering on Baal, Astarte was also closely associated with the storm god in other ways. In the Ugaritic texts, the goddess was curiously called, “Astarte, Baal’s other self…” (Kirta, Tablet 3, column 6, approximately lines 55-59). In the Bible, too, Baal and Astarte were often linked together, with mentions being made of people worshipping the Baals and the Astartes. The author of the Book of Judges wrote, “Then the Israelites did what was evil in the sight of the Lord and served the Baals, and they abandoned the Lord, the God of their ancestors, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt; they followed other gods, from among the gods of the peoples who were all around them and bowed down to them, and they provoked the Lord to anger. They abandoned the Lord and served Baal and the Astartes” (Judges 2.11-13). Later on in the Book of Judges, the author stated, “The Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, serving the Baals and the Astartes, the gods of Aram, the gods of Sidon, the gods of Moab, the gods of the Ammonites, and the gods of the Philistines” (Judges 10.6).

Unfortunately, whereas Anat was given a clear and vivid personality in the Ugaritic texts, the same did not occur with Astarte. Nevertheless, some traits can be inferred from the ancient tablets. On the one hand, Astarte could be fierce and deadly when she needed to be, and she glorified the violent successes of Baal and Anat on the battlefield. On the other side of the spectrum, she was also usually a polite and caring goddess, whereas Anat was often overly belligerent and hostile.

Chemosh and Moloch / Molech
Chemosh was a West Semitic and Canaanite deity who was heavily associated by the Hebrews with the Moabites. Unfortunately, this god remains quite enigmatic, and little is known about his areas of expertise and influence. It is possible, however, that he may have been associated with war, for a 9th-century BCE Moabite stone has been discovered with an inscription that cited Chemosh as being responsible for blessing a Moabite army with victory in battle. There also seemed to have been connections between Chemosh and Astarte, leading some scholars to believe that the two deities were partners. Curiously, King Solomon (said to have ruled in the 10th century BCE) reportedly built a shrine or sanctuary in honor of Chemosh. In the First Book of Kings, it was written, “Then Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the abomination of Moab and for Molech the abomination of the Ammonites on the mountain east of Jerusalem. He did the same for all his foreign wives who offered incense and sacrificed to their gods” (1 Kings 11:7-8).

Among those figures that Solomon built sanctuaries for, the deity known as Molech (or Moloch) was especially curious. Molech was a West Semitic entity associated with a geographical location called the Valley of Hinnom, which was said to have been just south of Jerusalem. The valley name eventually morphed into Gehenna (from the Hebrew gē’ hinnōm and the Aramaic gēhinnā). At that location, there was a mysterious ritual site known ominously as Topheth (the Burning Place). There, some sort of religious rituals were carried out that involved sacrifices, fire, and children. In the Bible, the authors of the religious texts were not consistent on which god was honored by the Topheth ritual. In some passages, the Bible claimed the sacrifice was done for Baal. Other biblical verses, however, pointed to Molech. In the case of the Book of Jeremiah, the author simply mentioned both gods in connection to the Topheth at the Valley of Hinnom. It was written: “They built the high places of Baal in the valley of the son of Hinnom, to offer up their sons and daughters to Molech, though I did not command them, nor did it enter my mind that they should do this abomination, causing Judah to sin” (Jeremiah 32.35). Unfortunately, very little is known about Molech other than the entity’s association with sacrifices. In fact, it is argued that Molech or Moloch may be a name that became synonymous with the idea of sacrificial offerings.

Interestingly, Solomon’s sanctuaries to Chemosh, Molech, and other gods allegedly remained in use for centuries until King Josiah (r. 640–609 BCE) cracked down with an iron fist against the worshippers, priests and shrines that were not devoted to Yahweh. On this, the Bible stated: “The king defiled the high places that were east of Jerusalem, to the south of the Mount of Destruction, which King Solomon of Israel had built for Astarte the abomination of the Sidonians, for Chemosh the abomination of Moab, and for Milcom the abomination of the Ammonites. He broke the pillars in pieces, cut down the sacred poles, and covered the sites with human bones” (2 Kings 23:13-14). Despite the destruction, the sanctuaries and places of worship left a great and lasting impact on biblical theologians. Gehenna became inextricably associated with the concepts of death, evil and fire. In English translations of the New Testament, Gehenna is often replaced by the newer word, “Hell.”

Rephaim, Ditan, Danel, Aqhat, Rapau and Kirta
Ancient Canaanites, like the authors of the Hebrew Bible, used the word “Rephaim” to refer to both the ghostly shades of the dead, as well as legendary kings. In one part of the Bible you hear of mortal “King Og of Bashan, one of the last of the Rephaim…” (Joshua 12.4), but in another book a ghostly underworld vision is presented that uses Rephaim in a different way: “Sheol beneath hath been troubled at thee, To meet thy coming in, It is waking up for thee Rephaim, All chiefs ones of earth, It hath raised up from their thrones All kings of nations” (Isaiah 14.9, Young’s Literal Translation version). The New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) translation of that same Isaiah 14 passage reads:

“Sheol beneath is stirred up
to meet you when you come;
it rouses the shades to greet you,
all who were leaders of the earth;
it raises from their thrones
all who were kings of the nations.”
(Isaiah 14.9, NRSV translation).

In the first quote from the Bible, a certain King Og of Bashan was named to be a mortal ruler of a Rephaim kingdom, and in the second quote, Rephaim is used to refer to kingly shades in the Hebrew underworld of Sheol. Unfortunately, the authors of the Bible did not reconcile these two differing uses of the title.

Canaanite writers, contrastingly, did lay out a bridge between the mortal and spiritual Rephaim, also called Rapauma. In the worldview presented by the ancient Canaanites, King Og could have certainly become a revered spiritual monarch after his death. This is because the ancient Canaanites practiced ancestor worship, and legendary rulers and heroes from their past were venerated as deities. More than mere shades, the Canaanite ghostly Rephaim were called “eternal royal princes,” “divine ones,” and gods. In the Ugaritic tablets, the Rephaim were said to have been overseen by the sun goddess, Shapsu, but they were also heavily associated with Baal and Anat, which is why they are being placed among Baal’s faction in this list. One of the ancient Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Sun rules the Rephaim,
Sun rules the divine ones:
Your company are the gods,
see, the dead are your company.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 6, approximately between lines 45-53).

On the relationship of the Rephaim to Baal and Anat, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“There were the Rephaim of Baal,
the warriors of Baal and the warriors of Anat.
There the forces circles about,
the eternal royal princes”
(The Rephaim, Tablet 3, right-hand column, approximately lines 8-11)

And

“To his place the Rephaim went,
to his place the divine ones went,
the warriors of Baal and the warriors of Anat.”
(The Rephaim, Tablet 3, approximately lines 5-7).

In the Ugaritic tablets, several specific Rephaim were mentioned by name. Many of the humans featured in the Ugaritic mythological writings were considered Rephaim, including a judge named Danel, his son, Aqhat, alongside King Rapau of Ashtaroth and Erdei, as well as King Kirta of Hubar, and his dynasty’s founder, named Ditan. On the last two, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“May Kirta be highly praised,
in the midst of the Rephaim of the underworld,
in the assembly of Ditan’s company.”
(Kirta, Tablet 2, Column 3, approximately lines 1-3).

Given that Rephaim were divine ancestor figures, and the Kingdom of Ugarit was biased in favor of Baal, it is natural that the Rephaim of Ugarit had a close relationship with Baal—Ugarit’s patron god. This could have impacted Ugarit’s theology concerning the loyalties of the Rephaim. Other cities and their respective theologians may not have believed that the Rephaim were associated with Baal and Anat. Legendary kings and heroes from other cities may have been partial to other Canaanite gods and goddesses and therefore the Rephaim of those cities may have been warriors for El, or Asherah, or Astarte, not to mention their mysterious role under the sun goddess.

Faction Of The Sea

(Antichrist sitting on Leviathan, from a 15th century manuscript, [Public Domain] via Europeana and the National Library of the Netherlands)

 

Yamm
Baal’s faction was not the only group of belligerent and ambitious Canaanite gods. Another was a faction of aquatic deities, led by the sea god Yamm (translated simply as Sea). Yamm was given lofty titles such as “Prince Sea” and “Judge River,” but his faction consisted of monsters and monstrous deities. Nevertheless, El and Asherah looked upon the group favorably. El’s favor is not surprising, as Yamm was El’s son, and even figures who were not El’s biological offspring (such as Baal and Anat) were treated as his adopted children. As for El’s consort, she had some aquatic tendencies and was known as Lady Asherah of the Sea, which likely biased her toward supporting the sea god and his faction. In the stories told within the Ugaritic tablets, Yamm demanded and received respect from the gods, and it seemed that El—at least according to the Ugaritic tradition—originally intended to let the sea god, Yamm, have more authority than the storm god, Baal. This caused a conflict between Yamm and Baal, and their respective networks of allies. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“And the Bull, his father El, replied:
‘Sea, Baal is your servant,
the son of Dagan your prisoner.
He will bring you tribute,
like the gods, he will bring you payment,
like the holy ones, gifts.’
Then Prince Baal was shaken;
in his right hand a striker,
…Anat seizes,
his left hand Astarte seizes.”
(Baal, Tablet 2, Column 1, approximately between lines 35-40).

This was one of the times when Baal’s faction was frustrated with the high-god El, and it was during moments like these when Anat could become quite rude with the fatherly Creator-god. Nevertheless, Baal and Anat did not directly attack the leading couple. Instead, Baal and his allies ignored El’s decree and waged a total war against Yamm and the sea god’s faction. Equipped with clubs made by the craftsman god, Kothar-wa-Hasis, Baal personally challenged and overcame Yamm. The Ugaritic tablets described the scene:

“The club swooped from Baal’s hands,
like a vulture from his fingers.
It struck Prince Sea on the skull,
Judge River between the eyes.
Sea stumbled;
he fell to the ground;
his joints shook,
his frame collapsed.
Baal captured and pierced Sea;
he finished off Judge River.
Astarte shouted to him by name:
‘Hail, Baal the Conqueror!
Hail, Rider on the Clouds!
Prince Sea is our captive,
Judge River is our captive.’”
(Baal, Tablet 2, column 4, approximately between lines 20-30).

After the storm god defied El’s decision and defeated Yamm, Baal—at least in Ugaritic tradition—ascended to something akin to co-rule status alongside the high-god, El. This ascendance faced little pushback from the pantheon of Canaanite gods. After the clash, Yamm (perhaps still alive since he was called a captive by Astarte instead of dead) faded into the background of godly politics. Mot, the god of death, would then take over as Baal’s main violent rival.

Sea Serpents / Litan / Lotan / Leviathan / Dragon
Canaanite mythology contained several serpentine monsters that were in the faction of the sea god, Yamm. Titles such as Litan (or Lotan), the Twisting Serpent, the Fleeing Serpent, and Dragon were sometimes used interchangeably, as well as other times seemingly referring to specific monstrous creatures. Anat, the warrior goddess, helped Baal slay many of these sea monsters. In the Ugaritic tablets, Anat was reported to have said:

“What enemy has risen against Baal,
what foe against the Rider on the Clouds?
Didn’t I demolish El’s Darling, Sea?
Didn’t I finish off the divine River, the Mighty?
Didn’t I snare the Dragon and destroy him?
I demolished the Twisting Serpent,
the seven-headed monster.”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 3, approximately between lines 30-46).

Baal, personally, was involved in killing the monster, Litan—which was also described as a fleeing and twisting serpentine creature. On this the tablets stated:

“…you killed Litan, the Fleeing Serpent,
finished off the Twisting Serpent,
the seven-headed monster,”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 1, approximately between lines 1-10).

Canaan’s Litan was described in a similar fashion to the Leviathan featured in the Bible. Both are described as fleeing and twisting serpentine sea monsters that were defeated in a divine battle. In the case of Litan, the sea monster was defeated by Baal around the time of the storm god’s war with the faction of Yamm. As for the Leviathan, that sea monster was defeated by God around the time of creation. In Psalm 74, God is said to have utterly defeated a dragonesque, multi-headed, and sea-bound Leviathan before forming the world. The text states:

“Yet God my King is from of old,
working salvation in the earth.
You divided the sea by your might;
you broke the heads of the dragons in the waters.
You crushed the heads of Leviathan;
you gave him as food for the creatures of the wilderness.
You cut openings for springs and torrents;
you dried up ever-flowing streams.
Yours is the day, yours also the night;
you established the luminaries and the sun.
 You have fixed all the bounds of the earth;
you made summer and winter.”
(Psalm 74.12-17).

Descriptions of twisting and fleeing sea monster serpents also appeared in the Book of Isaiah. The author of the text stated: “On that day the Lord with his cruel and great and strong sword will punish Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent, and he will kill the dragon that is in the sea” (Isaiah 27.1). In the Bible, God is said to have tamed the beast, or used the defeated Leviathan to nourish creation. Contrastingly, what Baal did with the carcass of the monster was left vague.

Waves and Rabbim
Waves and Rabbim were children of the goddess, Asherah. As for the father, one could assume it was El, since Asherah was the consort of the high-god, but he was never explicitly labeled as the father of Waves and Rabbim. Whatever the case, Asherah’s sons were aquatic gods. The watery connotation of Waves is self-evident, but for Rabbim (translated to “the many”), context can be gleaned from the way Hebrew authors used “the many waters” in writing. The author of the Book of Isaiah wrote:

“Ah, the thunder of many peoples,
they thunder like the thundering sea!
Ah, the roar of nations,
they roar like the roaring of mighty waters!
The nations roar like the roaring of many waters…”
(Isaiah 17.12-13, NRSV translation).

If the Canaanites and Hebrews had a similar idea of “the many waters”—and they most likely did—then Rabbim was probably a god whose name evoked the idea of the sea and powerful, mighty waters. Rabbim and Waves, like their mother, Lady Asherah of the Sea, were biased toward the sea deity faction during the war of the sea god, Yamm, and the storm god, Baal. There is little description about how involved Rabbim and Waves were in the struggle, but they were enough of an annoyance to Baal that the storm god held a grudge against them and regarded the two as enemies. On their fate, the Ugaritic tablets claimed:

“Baal seized Asherah’s sons;
he struck Rabbim on the shoulder;
he struck Waves with his club;”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 5, approximately between lines 1-5).

Baal’s defeat of Rabbim and Waves did not cause as much chaos in the Canaanite pantheon as one might suspect. Lady Asherah of the Sea made peace with the situation and managed to resume a working relationship with Baal after his victory over her sons, just like El had done when Baal defeated several of his own sons, including the sea god, Yamm.

Other Gods That Openly Fought Against Baal’s Faction

Mot
Mot, the god of Death, was a son of El whose powers were the antithesis of Baal’s. Whereas Baal brought clean rainwater, life, and fertility, Mot was contrastingly associated with the desert and fire, as well as dangerous waters (like swamps and watery depths), decay, sterility, and, of course, death. Powerful in both strength and influence, the god of Death was sometimes portrayed like a king. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Death the Ruler sits;
in his hand a staff of bereavement,
in his hand a staff of widowhood.”
(The Lovely Gods, tablet front, approximately between lines 5-10).

In the time before Mot’s conflict with Baal, the death god seemingly had a good and productive relationship with the other deities. For example, he worked to some extent with the sun goddess, Shapsu (who also shared an afterlife role as the ruler of the Rephaim), and they were both involved with illuminating the heavens. On this curious relationship, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Sun, the Gods’ Torch, burned,
the heavens shimmered
because of the power of Death, El’s Darling.”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 5, approximately between lines 17-20).

Descriptions of Mot could vary greatly. Sometimes he was fiery, such as a description of when  Baal “trampled burning Death to the ground” (Baal, Tablet 6, Column 5, approximately line 4). Other times, he was described as living in a murky and mucky environment. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Then head to the midst of his city, the Swamp,
the Pit, his royal house,
Filth, the land of his inheritance.”
(Baal, Tablet 4, Column 8, approximately between lines 10-15).

Furthermore, Mot’s stomach—in the sense that souls are swallowed by Death—was described as being like watery depths. On this, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Now you must descend into the
throat of El’s son, Death,
into the watery depths of El’s
Darling, the Hero.”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 1, approximately between lines 5-10).

Besides the swampy, deep, and pit-like underworld abode that Mot lived in, the death god’s most noticeable trait was his insatiable hunger. Mot’s huge appetite was matched by a giant mouth that he could use to swallow up gods and mortal souls, alike. The Ugaritic tablets vividly described the extent of Mot’s extended maw:

“One lip to the earth, one lip to the heavens;
…his tongue to the stars.”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 2, approximately between lines 1-5).

In the same tablet, Mot described his appetite:

“So is my appetite like a lion’s in the wild,
or the desire of a dolphin in the sea?
Or is it like wild oxen that go to a pool,
deer that go to a spring?
Or truly does my appetite consume a heap-full?
So do I eat with both my hands,
or are my portions seven bowls’ worth,
or does my cup contain a whole river?”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 1, approximately between lines 10-25).

Unfortunately for the living, this was not innocent hunger. Mot was hungry for anything and everything that was alive—Death was starving to swallow up the living. He especially had an appetite for humans. Mot described this eerie hunger in an Ugaritic tablet:

“I was taking a walk and wandering
on every mountain in the heart of the earth,
on every hill in the heart of the fields.
My appetite longed for human beings,
my appetite for earth’s masses.
​I arrived at my lovely place, the desert pasture,
at the beautiful fields on Death’s shore.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 2, approximately between lines 15-21).

In the Hebrew Bible, the underworld, Sheol, is described similarly to Mot. Biblical authors wrote of the underworld, often nicknamed the Pit or the depths, having a huge mouth and an insatiable appetite. Like Mot, Sheol was sometimes described as dark depths and other times as a fiery place, but it was always hungry for human souls. The author of the Book of Isaiah wrote:

“Therefore Sheol has enlarged its appetite
and opened its mouth beyond measure;
the nobility of Jerusalem and her multitude go down,
her throng and all who exult in her.”
(Isaiah 5.14).

Similarly, the authors of Proverbs wrote:

“Sheol and Abaddon are never satisfied,
and human eyes are never satisfied.”
(Proverbs 27.20)

and

“Sheol, the barren womb,
the earth ever-thirsty for water,
and the fire that never says, ‘Enough.’”
(Proverbs 30.16).

Psalmist descriptions of Sheol are also of note, such as:

“For my soul is full of troubles,
and my life draws near to Sheol.
I am counted among those who go down to the Pit;
I am like those who have no help,
like those forsaken among the dead,
like the slain that lie in the grave,
like those whom you remember no more,
for they are cut off from your hand.
You have put me in the depths of the Pit,
in the regions dark and deep.”
(Psalms 88.3-6).

Additionally, ancient Hebrew and ancient Canaanite beliefs interestingly shared a similar notion that windows give Death some access to households. The author of the Book of Jeremiah wrote:

“Death has come up into our windows;
it has entered our palaces
to cut off the children from the streets
and the young men from the squares.”
(Jeremiah 9.21).

Baal, who was at first terrified of Mot, likely had Death’s use of windows in mind when he thought of having a windowless palace constructed. This came up in a conversation between Baal and the craftsman god, Kothar-wa-Hasis. The curious discussion in the Ugaritic tablets went as follows:

“And Kothar-wa-Hasis replied:
‘Listen, Baal the Conquereor,
pay attention, Rider on the Clouds:
I should put an opening in the house,
a window in the palace.’
But Baal the Conqueror replied:
‘Don’t put an opening in the house,
a window in the palace.’”
(Baal, Tablet 4, Column 5, approximately lines 59-65).

Baal, after gaining confidence and experience, would eventually decide to allow the window to be constructed, but he may have come to regret it, for after having put in the window, Baal found Mot to be more than an equal in combat. How exactly the two gods came to blows was not explained clearly in the Ugaritic tablets. One catalyst apparently was that Baal’s defeat of Yamm and other sea creatures caused the universe to atrophy to some extent. In the Ugaritic tablets, Mot repeatedly addressed Baal with words like these:

“When you killed Litan, the Fleeing Serpent,
finished off the Twisting Serpent,
the seven-headed monster,
the heavens withered and weakened,”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 1, approximately between lines 25-35).

Perhaps Baal was sentenced to be swallowed by Death as punishment for his destabilizing actions, or maybe the withering of the universe weakened Baal to the extent that he arrived at Death’s door. Another possible reason could be that a turf war broke out over which god could claim to be the one responsible for nourishing the earth and which one had more power over mortals. On the one hand, Baal sustained the lives of living beings with water to drink and conditions that allowed food to grow. Mot, on the other hand, provided death and decay that fertilized the earth with nutrients, and the death god also controlled the souls of living beings when they died. Whatever the case, Baal made sure to reaffirm his authority over nourishing the masses in his war declaration against Mot:

“No other king or non-king
shall set his power over the earth.
I will send a messenger to El’s son Death,
an envoy to El’s Darling, the Hero,
that he may call to Death with his throat,
instruct the Darling with his innards.
For I alone rule over the gods;
I alone fatten gods and men;
I alone satisfy earth’s masses.’
Baal declared to his lads:”
(Baal, Tablet 4, Column 7, approximately between lines 44-55).

Despite Baal being a warrior-god allied with other warrior gods, he fared poorly against Mot in their first bout. It could be that Baal was weakened by the universe’s withering and that Mot was conversely strengthen by the decay of creation. Either way, the first clash between Mot and Baal was one-sided, with the death god being the clear winner. The Ugaritic tablet description of the scene reads like an execution. A report was sent to El’s heavenly assembly, stating:

“We arrived at the lovely place,
the desert pasture,
at the beautiful fields on Death’s shore.
We came upon Baal:
he had fallen to the ground.
Baal the Conqueror has died,
the Prince, the Lord of the
Earth, has perished.”
(Baal, Tablet 5, Column 6, approximately between lines 1-11).

Mot later described his quick destruction of the storm god:

“I approached Baal the Conqueror;
I put him in my mouth like a lamb;
he was crushed like a kid in my jaws.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 2, approximately between lines 20-25).

Nevertheless, as Baal was a god, he was still an existing being, even in Death (pun intended). He was not gone; his soul was just stuck in Mot. Even so, Baal’s exit from the land of the living caused creation to wither even further, because the storm god’s fresh waters were being cut off from the world while he was incapacitated. El and the majority of the heavenly assembly mourned Baal and watched hopelessly as the world turned to drought and desert. Yet, one goddess—Baal’s sister, Anat—chose the path of vengeance instead of despair. Showing her own divine power as a goddess of war, Anat went to battle against Mot in hopes of cutting open the belly of the beast, as it were, to free her brother from the clutches of death. Surprisingly, whereas Baal had failed to beat Death, Anat achieved a complete and utter victory over Mot. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Maiden Anat approached him.
Like the heart of a cow for her calf,
like the heart of a ewe for her lamb,
so was Anat’s heart for Baal.
She seized El’s son Death:
with a sword she split him;
with a sieve she winnowed him;
with fire she burned him;
with millstones she ground him;
​in the fields she sowed him.
Birds ate his flesh;
fowl consumed his parts;
flesh cried out to flesh!”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 2, approximately between lines 25-38).

Thus, Anat dismembered Death, or otherwise processed his body in the way that an ancient farmer would handle freshly cut grain. Due to Mot being cut open, or perhaps as a result of Death being roasted, milled, and sown into the field, Baal was able to revive into the world of the living and bring forth his rain clouds once more to water the earth.

Mot, like Baal, was a resilient god, so despite being split open, sieved, burned, milled, sown, and who knows what else, the god of Death was still able to revive, just as Baal had done. Naturally, Mot wanted revenge, so he challenged Baal to another battle seven years later. This time, the fight was more equal. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Death was strong; Baal was strong.
They bit each other like serpents;
​Death was strong; Baal was strong.
They trampled each other like running animals;
Death fell; Baal fell.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 6, approximately between lines 15-25).

In that particular second battle, the sun goddess, Shapsu, was able to separate the two gods and impose a temporary truce. Yet, like a double ouroboros, the god of growth and the god of decay continued to circle each other and struggle in the unending conflict between life and death.

Desire, Rebel, Fire and Zebub
Desire, Rebel, Fire and Zebub are all deities that sided against Baal, likely during the storm god’s war against Yamm’s faction. The high-god El, as per usual, was fond of these beings. Zebub, a goddess associated with flies, was explicitly known to have been El’s daughter, and Desire may have also been a child of the high-god, for Desire was called “El’s darling,” a title used for other children of El, such as Yamm and Mot. Fire, too, was closely associated with El. Only Rebel, a divine calf, was not openly linked to the high-god. All of these deities were defeated by Baal’s formidable sister, Anat. She said as much in the Ugaritic tablets:

“What enemy has risen against Baal,
what foe against the Rider on the Clouds?
Didn’t I demolish El’s Darling, Sea?
Didn’t I finish off the divine River, the Mighty?
Didn’t I snare the Dragon and destroy him?
I demolished the Twisting Serpent,
the seven-headed monster.
I demolished El’s Darling, Desire,
I annihilated the divine calf, the Rebel;
​I demolished El’s bitch, Fire,
I finished off El’s daughter, Zebub.”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 3, approximately between lines 35-46).

Chronologically, as the quote is situated immediately after Baal’s battle with Yamm and well before the storm god’s conflict with Mot, it is likely that Desire, Rebel, Fire and Zebub clashed against Anat while Baal’s faction was at war with the sea deities. As with Baal and Mot, these gods likely did not completely die. It is known that the craftsman god, Kothar-wa-Hasis, had a continuing role in restraining or repelling Desire, along with other surviving sea monsters.

El’s Close Allies And Associates

(Left: Canaanite deity, likely El or Baal, c. 14th–13th century BCE; Right: Israelite ceramic figure, presumably of Asherah, c. 8th–7th century BCE, both [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and the MET.)

 

El and “the older gods”
El (or some derivative of it) was the ancient word for God or god in the languages of the West Semitic linguistic family—which included Ugaritic, Hebrew and Aramaic, among others. The word could be used to refer to a god, in general, but El was also used as the name of God. El, as a word, is present in the Bible, but its presence has been obscured due to the common practice of translating it to “God” in English texts of the Bible. Nevertheless, good translations usually include footnotes pointing out the original Hebrew wording. In the following passage, summarized footnote information will be present in brackets, and the bracketed information is placed exactly where the footnote indicators were located in the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible. The translation reads: “God also spoke to Moses and said to him, ‘I am the Lord. I appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as God Almighty [El Shaddai in the Hebrew text], but by my name ‘The Lord’ [YHWH (aka Yahweh) in the Hebrew text] I did not make myself known to them” (Exodus 6.2, NSRVUE version). According to the extremely qualified scholar, Michael D. Coogan, involved in writing and editing The New Oxford Annotated Bible, The Oxford Companion to the Bible, and Stories from Ancient Canaan (from which much of the information in this article was sourced), the aforementioned title of El Shaddai (or Shadday) would be more accurately translated to mean “El of the Mountain” or “El, the One of the Mountain” (Stories from Ancient Canaan, page 13).

Refocusing back on the El of the ancient Canaanite religion, he was associated with the bull and had many titles. These designations included Bull El or El the Bull. His kingly nature was emphasized in titles like the King and El the King. His kindness and compassion were expressed through the use of El the Compassionate, as well as El the Kind, the Compassionate. He was similarly referred to as the Kind and Holy One, or simply the Kind One. And finally, referencing his status as a fatherly and primordial being, he was also called the Creator of Creatures and the Father of Time.

Despite his connection to time and creation, Canaanite mythology held that some mysterious “older gods” predated or coexisted with El before his ascendance as high-god of the universe. These older, enigmatic primordial forces were overcome and supplanted by El, allowing him to become the director of creation and existence. Aside from the mysterious and unexplained primordial beings, most of the other gods in the Canaanite pantheon were El’s children, some biologically and others through adoption. He cherished both the good and the evil, the beautiful and the monstrous, for they were all his children.

El had multiple ways to bring forth life. For one, he was a sexual being and could father children in the usual biological way. El’s consort was the goddess, Asherah, but similarly to the Greek god Zeus, El was known to have had many affairs on the side. Additionally, the Ugaritic tablets suggest that El (as well as other gods in the pantheon) practiced polygamy, meaning he kept other wives in addition to his main consort, Asherah. Besides bringing about creation through the normal biological way, El also had the power to form living beings on his own through the use of divine power. In a tale where the high-god urgently needed a healer deity to cure a sickness on Earth, El showed his ability to hand-craft new divine beings that met his specific requirements. On this ability, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Then El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
‘My sons, sit down upon your thrones,
​upon your princely seats.
I will fashion and establish;
I will establish one to expel the sickness,
to drive out the disease.’
He filled his palms with dirt,
his fingers with the best dirt.
He pinched off some clay.
…
A cup he takes in his hand,
a goblet in his right:
‘You are the Expeller…’”
(Kirta, Tablet 3, column 5, approximately lines 24-41).

Expeller, also named Shataqat, was a female sentient being with incredible healing powers. She arrived as a fully-functioning goddess, for right after being born from El’s divine creation abilities, Shataqat was able to fly to the outbreak of sickness, where she fended off the influences of the gods of plague and death.

El’s ability to divinely craft deities by hand added complications to his family life. For instance, what was Shataqat’s relationship to El after the high-god formed her from dirt, clay, and the contents of a goblet? Was she a direct daughter of El, or an adopted daughter of El, or simply a new goddess without any familial connection? According to the Ugaritic tablets, El may have solved this odd conundrum by letting gods and goddesses born from his divine energy decide for themselves how they wished to identify. This practice of El letting deities choose for themselves whether or not he was their father occurred in an Ugaritic tale called The Lovely Gods. In it, El pondered whether to take certain goddesses as his wives, but he decided to wait to hear how they addressed him before he made his decision. The tablet stated:

“El enticed the two women.
Now if the two women declare:
‘O man, man,
…
then the two women will be wives of El,
wives of El, his forever.
But if the two women declare:
‘O father, father,
then the two women will be daughters of El,
daughters of El, his forever.”
(The Lovely Gods, back of the tablet, approximately between lines 39-50).

Along with being at the source of creation, El was also associated with being at the source of fresh water. Whereas Baal was the storm god who could rain down water upon the earth, El was seen as a god whose mountain home was the main source of the world’s fresh bodies of water. El’s mountain was usually left unnamed, but one of the Ugaritic tablets mentioned a certain Mount Lalu, where El was presiding over the heavenly assembly. The text states:

“they headed to the midst of Mount Lalu,
to the Assembly in council.
There the gods had sat down to eat,
the holy ones to a meal;
Baal was standing by El.”
(Baal, Tablet 2, Column 1, approximately between lines 20-25).

In the Ugaritic tablets, the waters flowing from El’s mountain were often mentioned when any god traveled to the high-god’s home. Anat, for one, stomped her way toward El’s mountainous abode on several occasions, and in multiple of these instances the waters were described. These references included:

“She stamped her feet and left the earth,
Then she headed to El
at the source of the two rivers,
in the midst of the channels of the two deeps;
she arrived at El’s encampment,
the tent of the King, the Father of Time…”
(Baal, Tablet 3, Column 5, approximately lines 5-8)

And

“She stamped her feet and left the earth;
then she headed for El,
at the source of the two rivers,
in the midst of the channels of the two seas.
She came to the encampment of El and entered
the tent of the King, the Father of Time.
At El’s feet she bowed and lowered herself,
she prostrated herself and honored him.”
(Aqhat, Tablet 1, Column 6, approximately between lines 45-51).

Curiously, this kind of watery description of God’s seat of power also occurs in the Bible. Whereas El’s mountain channeled water to the two seas or deeps, the author of the Book of Zachariah prophesied: “On that day living water shall flow out from Jerusalem, half of it to the eastern sea and half of it to the western sea; it shall continue in summer as in winter” (Zachariah 14.8, NRSV translation). Similarly, the Book of Ezekiel presents a prophetic vision of fresh water pouring out from underneath God’s temple. The author of the book wrote:

“Then he brought me back to the entrance of the temple; there water was flowing from below the entryway of the temple toward the east (for the temple faced east), and the water was flowing down from below the south side of the temple, south of the altar. Then he brought me out by way of the north gate and led me around on the outside to the outer gate that faces toward the east, and the water was trickling out on the south side… Wherever the river goes, every living creature that swarms will live, and there will be very many fish once these waters reach there. It will become fresh, and everything will live where the river goes” (Ezekiel 47.1-2, 9).

As portrayed in the stories from Ugarit, El was a kind, compassionate, and understanding high-god, but maybe to a fault in the sense that he seemed to avoid confrontation in regard to infighting and evil. When different factions among his children and adopted children wanted to go to war, he let them. And when his more evil-minded children were set on doing cruel deeds, he frequently turned a blind eye while they carried out their grisly desires. El did, sometimes, restrain gods if they posed a threat to all life and the stability of the universe, but El’s intervention was not guaranteed in the many other cases where the danger was less than an existential threat. The situation brings up the age-old religious question about why divine authorities allow good people to experience bad suffering. An Ugaritic explanation could be that El allows evil things to happen to good people because many of the morbid forces in the world, like the death god Mot, are beloved children of El. Would a father eliminate death and violence from the world if it came at the cost of eliminating his own children? It was likely these conflicts of interest that allowed Baal to position himself as the champion of humanity in Ugaritic theology.

Non-confrontation and inaction aside, El comes off as a level-headed, calm, and non-wrathful god in the Ugaritic texts. In scenes where Anat shouted insults at him and threatened violence, El calmly talked her down and sympathized with his adopted daughter. After Baal’s faction slayed multiple of his children, El continued to work with the storm god and gave permission for Baal to build a temple using divine resources. Furthermore, El was also associated with wisdom and luck, with the Ugaritic tablets stating:

“Your decree is wise, El,
your wisdom is eternal,
a lucky life is your decree.”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 4, approximately between lines 40-45).

El was also a god who knew how to have fun. When he was not busy overseeing his heavenly assembly, El was not shy of partaking in some partying and drinking. Interestingly, El sometimes came across as quite jolly at times, such as in this charming scene where the high-god was visibly in a great mood after glimpsing his consort, Asherah:

“Then she headed to El
at the source of the two rivers,
in the midst of the channels of the two deeps.
She came to the encampment of El and entered
the tent of the King, the Father of Time.
At El’s feet she bowed and lowered herself;
she prostrated herself and honored him.
As soon as El saw her,
his brow relaxed and he laughed;
he put his feet on a stool,
his fingers twirled with excitement.
He raised his voice and declared:
‘Why has Lady Asherah of the Sea arrived?
why has the Mother of the Gods come?”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 4, approximately between lines 20-35).

Such is the character of El, as portrayed in the Ugaritic tablets. He was often presented as a rather jovial figure, but at other times, El’s happy side could transition into a sober and serious state, where he featured a bit of a reserved and reluctant personality. Most of all, he cared deeply for his children. He was concerned greatly about humans, too, and wanted to help them in their plights, but his affection toward mortals often seemed a degree less than his love for his direct children, the gods. The Ugaritic tablets paint him as an elder patriarchal figure, mostly staying to his holy mountain and the divine assembly hall, and trying—sometimes unsuccessfully—to be a voice of calm and peace at the top of a pantheon of bickering and infighting gods.

Asherah
Asherah was, as the most recently quoted passage illustrated, the beloved consort of the high-god. In that capacity, she was known as the Mother of the Gods. Her areas of expertise were quite diverse; she was a motherly fertility goddess associated with trees, weaving, lions, snakes, and most of all, with the sea. Worship of the motherly consort goddess was widespread, and depending on the region, the identification of her husband could vary. Generally, as was the case in Ugarit, she was believed to be the consort of El, but other cities paired her with Baal. Ancient Hebrews and several of their kings, for a time, identified her as the consort of Yahweh. Sacred poles or trees were used for her worship and her likeness reportedly stood for a brief stint in the temple of God. On one such king from that time period, the author of the Second Book of Kings wrote:

“Manasseh was twelve years old when he began to reign; he reigned fifty-five years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was Hephzibah. He did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, following the abominable practices of the nations that the Lord drove out before the people of Israel. For he rebuilt the high places that his father Hezekiah had destroyed; he erected altars for Baal, made a sacred pole, as King Ahab of Israel had done, worshiped all the host of heaven and served them. He built altars in the house of the Lord, of which the Lord had said, ‘In Jerusalem I will put my name.’ He built altars for all the host of heaven in the two courts of the house of the Lord. He made his son pass through fire; he practiced soothsaying and augury and dealt with mediums and with wizards. He did much evil in the sight of the Lord, provoking him to anger. The carved image of Asherah that he had made he set in the house of which the Lord said to David and to his son Solomon, ‘In this house and in Jerusalem, which I have chosen out of all the tribes of Israel, I will put my name forever’” (2 Kings 21.1-7, NRSV translation).

Along with calling the consort goddess by the title of Lady Asherah of the Sea and Mother of the Gods, the Ugaritic tablets also identified her as Asherah of Tyre, and the goddess of Sidon. Tales from Ugarit made mention of Asherah having seventy sons, and her relationship with these children was described in lion-esque terminology, such as one tablet’s mention of “the goddess and her pride of lions” (Baal, Tablet 3, column 5, approximately between line 40). In descriptions of Asherah, her diverse associations could often be mixed and fused for interesting imagery. In one scene from the Ugaritic tablets, she was described as weaving and carrying out household chores by the water’s edge, combining her identifications with the sea, weaving and the hearth and home. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“She took her spindle in her hand,
an exalted spindle in her right hand.
As for her garment that covered her flesh,
she threw her robe into the sea,
her two garments into the river.
She put a pot on the fire,
a caldron on top of the coals.
She would implore the Bull, El the
Compassionate,
entreat the Creator of Creatures.”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 2, approximately between lines 3-11).

Like El, Asherah comes off as an amenable figure, willing to make peace and work with people who caused her trouble. In the Ugaritic tales, Baal reached out to Asherah first when he wanted to patch things up with her and El after his war against Yamm and the sea faction. Despite Baal’s defeat of several of her sons, such as Waves and Rabbim, Asherah accepted Baal’s gesture and pleaded his case to kind and forgiving El.

The Fisherman
A curious god known only as The Fisherman has an enigmatic, mysterious, and frustratingly obscure presence in the tales of the Ugaritic tablets. He was a prestigious member of Asherah’s entourage who carried out several roles for the Lady of the Sea. On some occasions he was a messenger, and other moments he was like an ancient chauffeur. Given his name, one also supposes he did a little fishing from time to time. Whatever the case of his role and his status, the Ugaritic authors went to great pains to emphasize that he was a holy and blessed individual. Often, his designation as being Asherah’s Fisherman was paired with a curious additional title of him being the Holy and Most Blessed One. Such as:

“proceed, Asherah’s Fisherman;
advance, Holy and Most Blessed One;”
(Baal, Tablet 3, column 6, approximately between lines 10-11)

Or

“Listen, Holy and Most Blessed One, Lady
Asherah of the Sea’s Fisherman:”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 4, approximately between lines 3-4).

In addition to the full phrase, the Fisherman’s titles of Holy One and Most Blessed One could also be split up and used individually. In longer passages concerning the Fisherman, the reader may get overwhelmed with these alternating designations. In one section, the tablets state:

“The Holy and Most Blessed One obeyed;
he saddled the ass, harnessed the donkey,
he attached silver reins,
a golden bridle,
he fastened reins to the she-ass.
The Holy and Most Blessed One lifted her,
he put Asherah on the ass’s back,
on the beautiful back of the donkey.
The Holy One began to lead,
the Most Blessed One like a guiding star.”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 4, approximately between lines 5-16).

Unfortunately, besides brief, vague, and rather undescriptive passages such as these, almost nothing is known about this Holy and Most Blessed Fisherman. Whatever the case, just like Lady Asherah of the Sea, the Fisherman was also closely associated with water and he served as the Lady of the Sea’s most trusted and attentive divine helper.

Yadi-Yalhan and Athtar “the Awesome”
Among Asherah’s lion pride of sons, Yadi-Yalhan and Athtar “the Awesome” were two of the most prominent members. According to the scholars and translators, Michael D. Coogan and Mark S. Smith, Yadi-Yalhan’s name roughly means “he knows how to serve,” whereas Athtar was known to be a morning star heavenly being. Athtar was likely similar to the personified morning stars featured in the Bible, such as biblical references to “when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy?” (Job 38.7, NRSV translation), also translated as “In the singing together of stars of morning, And all sons of God shout for joy” (Job 38.7, Young’s Literal Translation). Names and nature aside, the Ugaritic texts present little information about any specializations or associated elements of Yadi-Yalhan and Athtar “the Awesome.” Instead, they appear in the stories as strong figures who were given a chance to act as potential replacements of Baal during the period of time when the storm god was swallowed by Death. Unfortunately for them, they were found to be unsuitable replacements. The criteria that they did not meet was apparently in strength and stature. This scene was described in the Ugaritic tablets:

“’Why not make Yadi-Yalhan king?’
But El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
‘He’s too weak to race;
he can’t compete in spear-throwing with Baal;
compared with Dagan’s son, he’d collapse.’
And Lady Asherah of the Sea replied:
‘Why not make Athtar the Awesome king?
​Let Athtar the Awesome be king!’
Then Athtar the Awesome
went up to the heights of Zaphon;
he sat on Baal the Conqueror’s throne.
His feet did not reach the footstool,
his head did not reach the headrest.
And Athtar the Awesome spoke:
‘I can’t be king on the heights of Zaphon.’
Athtar the Awesome descended,
descended from the throne of
Baal the Conqueror,
and he became king of the earth,
the god of it all. . . .”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 1, approximately between lines 49-66).

The quote above is most of the meager evidence that has survived about these two figures. Yadi-Yalhan, despite knowing how to serve, comes across as a rather weak deity, at least in comparison to Baal, and little is known of his fate after the rejection of his nomination. Athtar “the Awesome,” on the other hand, may have been more of a match for Baal in strength, but he was not a good fit for the storm god’s throne—including in a literal sense. Even though he could not claim Baal’s position, the awesome morning star deity fared ok. As the quote conveyed, Athtar obtained a position of authority on Earth.

Yarih and Nikkal
Yarih (or Yarikh), the moon god, was a son of El and Asherah. He was married to a moon goddess named Nikkal, who had fertility and childbearing associations. Yarih’s parentage is why he is categorized here as one of El’s allies and associates. Otherwise, Yarih was a bit of a maverick and was known to associate with Anat and Astarte. Like the latter goddess, Yarih had astral and cosmic elements to his nature, which is not surprising for a god of the moon. Specific details gleaned about Yarih from the Ugaritic texts include that he was called Prince Moon and was also the patron of a place called Abiluma. This information can be obtained from tablet statements such as: “Abiluma, the town of Prince Moon” (Aqhat, Tablet 3, Column 4, approximately lines 2). Additionally, Yarih was known to use shapeshifting abilities. The Ugaritic tablets described the moon god transforming into a dog and infiltrating a party of the gods. It was written:

“Moon set his body down like a dog,
he crawled beneath the tables.
The god who knew him
prepared food for him;
and the one who did not know him
beat him with sticks beneath the table.
Astarte and Anat he approached;
​Astarte had a steak prepared for him,
and Anat a shoulder cut.”
(El’s Drinking Party, tablet front, approximately lines 5-11).

Unfortunately, the existing Ugaritic tablets do not develop Yarih’s character too much further. He remains an obscure and cryptic figure, which one supposes is fitting for an astral and cosmic deity. Whatever the case, he was a popular and widely worshipped god. His title of Prince Moon hints at his lofty rank and, perhaps, his power, as that title was often reserved for major gods, such as Prince Sea, Prince Baal and Prince Resheph (the god of plague).

Kothar-wa-Hasis
Kothar-wa-Hasis, often just called Kothar, and other times Hasis, was the craftsman god of the Canaanite pantheon. He was not restricted to any one area of construction—from weapons and magical devices, to homes and decorations, Kothar was willing to craft it all, including gifts that the gods could give each other. The craftsman god created most of his works within a workshop situated at a place called Caphtor, associated by some traditions with Crete and by other traditions (including the Ugaritic tablets) with Egypt. On gods visiting Kothar’s workshop, the Tablets state:

“to Caphtor, the seat of his enthronement,
Egypt, the land of his inheritance.
A thousand fields, ten thousand
acres at each step,
at Kothar’s feet bow down and fall,
prostrate yourself and honor him;
and speak to Kothar-wa-Hasis,
recite to the Skillful Craftsman:”
(Baal, Tablet 3, column 6, approximately between lines 15-22).

Along with magical devices, Kothar was associated with magic, itself, as well as divination. Through these magical and mechanical means, Kothar was helpful in combating monstrous and cosmic forces. His link to magic and divination, as well as his role in containing malicious forces is evident in passages such as this one from the Ugaritic tablets:

“Kothar is your magician,
and Hasis your diviner.
In Sea, it is Desire and the Dragon
whom Kothar-wa-Hasis expels,
Kothar-wa-Hasis banishes.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 6, approximately between lines 49-53).

Kothar bequeathed his crafted masterpieces to both gods and mortals, alike. To name a few examples from the stories of the Ugaritic tablets, he made a bow and arrow for the hero, Aqhat; he made a pair of deadly clubs (Driver and Chaser) for the storm god, Baal, and constructed his palace; he also made all sorts of ornate gifts for Asherah, which helped mend her relationship with Baal.

Descriptions of Kothar’s weapon-crafting process are a bit under-detailed in the Ugaritic tablets. For instance, it is mentioned that “Kothar fashioned two clubs” (Baal, Tablet 2, column 4, approximately between lines 11), and the text goes on to say how he named them Driver and Chaser, but leaves out any detail of what they were made from or how they were put together. Nevertheless, they were incredibly powerful. A similar situation occurred with Aqhat’s bow and arrows. Proud of his work, Kothar went in person to deliver his handiwork to the hero. Aqhat’s and the narrator’s excitement are palpable in the passage, but no details are given about the weapons besides their existence. The tablets stated:

“Then he raised his eyes and looked:
a thousand fields, ten thousand acres at each step,
he saw Kothar coming,
he saw Hasis approaching.
Look!—he was bringing a bow,
Look!—he was bearing arrows.”
(Aqhat, Tablet 1, column 5, approximately line 9-14).

In contrast, Kothar’s craftsmanship outside war and weaponry was described with more precise specifics. For one example, in a section concerning the construction of Baal’s temple, the Ugaritic tablets divulged where Kothar sourced his building supplies, and a cryptic description was given about some of the magical or alchemical tricks that the craftsman god used to process his materials. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“But Kothar-wa-Hasis replied:
​‘You’ll recall my words, Baal.’
They built his house,
they erected his palace;
they went to the Lebanon for wood,
to Sirion for the finest cedar;
there—to the Lebanon for wood,
to Sirion for the finest cedar!
Fire was set in the house,
flames in the palace.
One day passed, then two:
The fire burned in the house,
the flames in the palace.
Three days passed, then four:
The fire burned in the house,
the flames in the palace.
Five days passed, then six:
​The fire burned in the house,
the flames in the palace.
Then, on the seventh day,
the fire went out in the house,
the flames in the palace:
The silver had turned into blocks,
​the gold had become bricks.
Baal the Conqueror was glad:
‘I have built my house of silver,
my palace of gold.’”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 6, approximately between lines 14-40).

Mysterious magic and confusing repetition aside, the passage gives many details about how Baal’s palace was built and what it was built from—Kothar used the finest cedar, as well as blocks and bricks that the god produced with gold, silver, and fire. Interestingly, even more vivid imagery was used to describe Kothar’s meticulous, detailed, and plentiful work on furniture, clothing, and ornate everyday items. The Ugaritic tablets described:

“The Skillful One went up to the bellows,
Hasis took the tongs in his hands;
​he cast silver, he poured gold:
he cast silver by the thousands,
he cast gold by the ten thousands.
He cast a canopy and a reclining couch,
​a divine dais worth twenty thousand,
a divine dais decorated with silver,
laminated with a layer of gold;
a divine seat set on top of it;
​a divine stool covered with electrum;
divine sandals with straps,
which he plated with gold;
a divine table filled with figures,
​creatures of the earth’s foundations;
a divine bowl with flocks like Amurru’s,
figured like the beasts of Yaman,”
(Baal, Tablet 4, column 1, approximately between lines 22-42).

In the Ugaritic stories, Kothar-wa-Hasis is presented as a good and helpful figure. Although he provided weapons to others and did not mind if they used his equipment for deadly purposes, Kothar usually carried himself in a non-violent manner, almost always keeping himself to his workshop instead of the battlefields. He was also a god who wanted to work with individuals who were having complicated times. When Baal was trying to mend his relationship with El and Asherah after his war with some of their children, Kothar-wa-Hasis was more than willing to help. Kothar was loyal El, and he did not help build Baal’s palace until El gave permission, but Kothar also exercised his own free will and personal discretion to produce gifts (the ones mentioned in the previous quote) that Baal was able to use to mend things with Asherah, who subsequently helped Baal and El reconcile.

The Kotharat
The Kotharat was the collective designation for a group of goddesses who presided over pregnancy and childbirth. If a person prayed to El for help with conceiving a child, and if the high-god decided to provide aid, then El would likely send the Kotharat to fulfill the mission. This arrangement occurred in the Ugaritic tablets. Within one tale, a legendary figure named Danel prayed to El and Baal for conceptive help, and in response the gods sent in the Kotharat goddesses. The tablets stated:

“Then, on the seventh day,
The Kotharat left his house,
the Radiant Daughters of the Crescent Moon…
…the pleasures of the bed,
the delights of the bed…”
(Aqhat, Tablet 1, column 2, approximately line 39-44).

Unfortunately, little else is known about this curious collective of fertility, marriage, and childbirth goddesses. As the quote conveys, they were known as Radiant Daughters of the Crescent Moon, and an alternative translation has been theorized that the title may mean something akin to “The Singers, the Swallows.” Along with conception, pregnancy and childbirth, in general, the Kotharat were likely also associated with magic and rituals that were thought to help with pregnancies and births.

Shataqat
Shataqat, or Expeller, was a goddess who could dispel disease and fend off Death’s influence with her incredible healing powers. Previously, in the section on El, it was already discussed how the high-god formed Shataqat from earth, the contents of a goblet, and his own divine power. More, however, can be said on the role that Shataqat was meant to play. As her origin story goes, a certain King Kirta of Hubur was cursed after breaking an oath he had sworn to Asherah. When his sworn promise went unfulfilled, Kirta’s curse manifested as a terrible disease that was leading him to an early grave. King Kirta, however, was El’s adopted son, and the king’s family was highly favored by the high-god. Suffice it to say, El was waiting for an excuse to rescue Kirta from the disease. Consequently, when the high-god heard Kirta’s daughter praying for her father’s salvation, El immediately called together the assembly of the gods to find the best way to break the curse. Dispelling this particular disease, however, was a daunting task. None of the gods were confident they could overcome the curse. On this scene, the tablets described:

“And El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
‘Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?’
But none of the gods answered him.
He spoke a second, then a third time:
‘Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?’
But none of the gods answered him.
He spoke a fourth, then a fifth time:
‘Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?’
But none of the gods answered him.
​He spoke a sixth, then a seventh time:
‘Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?’
But none of the gods answered him.
Then El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
‘My sons, sit down upon your thrones,
upon your princely seats.
I will fashion and establish;
I will establish one to expel the sickness,
to drive out the disease.’”
(Kirta, Tablet 3, Column 5, approximately lines 10-30).

Thus, El decided to create the goddess, Shataqat, the Expeller, with his divine power. She was hand-crafted by the high-god to meet the requirements necessary to break the curse that was plaguing Kirta. On Shataqat’s quick work, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“’Death—be broken!
Expeller—be strong!’
And Expeller left;
she came to Kirta’s house:
…she entered and went in,
into the enclosure she went.
She swooped in…
With a wand she unbound the knot,
and thus the sickness on his head.”
(Kirta, Tablet 3, column 6, approximately lines 1-9).

From this passage, we know that Shataqat could fly—or at least swoop. She also interestingly used a magic wand as an instrument of her healing craft. Whereas the assembly of the gods was hesitant or unsure about their ability to unwind the curse-spawned disease, El’s newest creation, Shataqat, was able to dispel the disease with a wave of her wand.

Shadrafa
Besides Shataqat, another major West Semitic healer deity was Shadrafa. This god, whose name may roughly translate to “Spirit of Healing,” was curiously not given too much prominence in Ugarit, even though the deity was held in fairly high regard in other cities. Ancient depictions, references, and other archaeological discoveries show that the range of Shadrafa’s worship was rather widespread. He was venerated in places as far apart as Palmyra, Syria, and Leptis Magna, Libya. Unfortunately, the ravages of time have left us without much in the way of stories, tales, or detailed myths concerning the god. Even so, it is apparent from what is available that Shadrafa was considered a benign and benevolent entity by his worshippers.

Shapsu
Shapsu was the Canaanite sun goddess, identifiable with the similar sun goddess, Shapash, of Mesopotamia. In terms of responsibilities, it seems the sun goddess had a lot on her plate. For one, she had to carry out the typical sun deity duties of providing light and energy. In the tablet series concerning King Kirta, the goddess Shapsu was described as “Lady Sun” and mention was also made of  “the shining of the Great Light” (Kirta, Tablet 3, column 1, approximately between lines 35-40). Similarly, Shapsu was frequently titled “the Gods’ Torch,” one example of which will be quoted below shortly. Curiously, Shapsu and her light was connected in some way to death and the underworld. The connection is not clearly explained, but Mot’s powers were also involved in the process of lighting the heavens. On this, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Sun, the Gods’ Torch, burns,
the heavens shimmer
because of the power of Death, El’s Darling.”
(Baal, Tablet 4, Column 8, approximately between lines 20-25).

Shapsu’s interaction with Death did not end there. She also had a role in overseeing the Rephaim—the venerated and worshipped spirits of legendary ancestors, who ascended to godhood after death. Ugaritic texts describe this arrangement:

“Sun rules the Rephaim,
Sun rules the divine ones:
Your company are the gods,
see, the dead are your company.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 6, approximately between lines 45-50).

Concerning personality, Shapsu was a helpful and influential goddess. She was also a goddess of action. Instead of staying aloof in the heavens, Shapsu was known to provide aid and intervene in times of need. In the myth of the feud between Baal and Mot, it was Shapsu who helped Anat locate Baal’s body after he was defeated. Later, after Anat cut apart Death and freed her brother, the sun goddess once again intervened and split up Baal and Mot when the resurrected gods resumed their duel. Shapsu had enough influence or high regard that mighty beings such as Baal and Mot would heed her advice.

Shahar and Shalim
Shahar and Shalim, or Dawn and Dusk respectively, were children of El. As for their mothers, it is complicated. According to the Ugaritic tales, Lady Asherah did not give birth to either of these gods. Instead, they were reportedly born when two other unidentified wives of El had miraculously synchronized labors and births. Shahar and Shalim, therefore, were half-brothers born at the same time. On the birth of the gods of Dawn and Dusk, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Word was brought to El:
‘El’s two wives have given birth.’
‘What have they borne?’
’A newborn pair, Dawn and Dusk.’
‘Make an offering to Lady Sun,
and to the stationary stars.’”
(The Lovely Gods, front of tablet, approximately between lines 50-55).

As the quote illustrates, Shahar and Shalim, as the gods of Dawn and Dusk, were associated with other astral and cosmic deities, such as to the sun goddess, Shapsu, and to the stellar entities. A relationship between Dawn and the stars also appears in the Bible, such as in the Book of Isaiah:

“How you are fallen from heaven,
O Morning Star, son of Dawn!
How you are cut down to the ground,
you who laid the nations low!”
(Isaiah 14.12, NRSV translation).

Unfortunately, little of the personality of Shahar and Shalim has survived in the Ugaritic tablets. They were undeniably seen as good, benevolent, or at least non-destructive deities in the Kingdom of Ugarit. This was in stark contrast to their other half-siblings, ironically and sarcastically called “The Lovely Gods.”

“The Lovely Gods”
Reportedly born around the same time as Shahar and Shalim, and similarly brought into the world through the miraculously synchronized births of unidentified wives of El, the curiously named “Lovely Gods” were anything but lovely. Instead, their title shared the same eerie and uncanny connotations as the descriptions of Death’s shores being beautiful, as well as similar references to the deadly desert being lovely. For example, in the Ugaritic tablets, the death god Mot stated:

“I arrived at my lovely place, the desert pasture,
at the beautiful fields on Death’s shore.”
(Baal, Tablet 6, Column 2, approximately between lines 20-21).

Comparisons between The Lovely Gods and the death god, Mot, do not stop there. The Lovely Gods, like the death deity, were endlessly ravenous beings, eager to eat the creatures of the Earth. Furthermore, their influence was so harmful to the living that El quickly assigned them to live for most of the time in desert regions. On the births of the so-called Lovely Gods, as well as their monstrous characteristics, the Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Word was brought to El:
‘El’s two wives have given birth.’
‘What have they borne?’
‘Twin lovely gods,
day-old devourers, one-day-old boys,
who suck the nipple of the breast.’
They set a lip to earth,
a lip to the heavens.
Then entered their mouths
the birds of the heavens,
and the fish in the sea.
As they move, bite upon bite
they stuffed on both their right and left
into their mouths, but they were not satisfied.
…
Make an offering in the holy desert,
there sojourn around rocks and brush.’
For seven years complete,
eight cycles’ duration,
the lovely gods roamed about the open country,
they hunted out to the edge of the desert.”
(The Lovely Gods, front of tablet, approximately between lines 60-70).

As has been stated before, El loved and cared for most of his pantheon of gods—even the evil and destructive ones. The Lovely Gods, with their ravenous natures and their killer tendencies, were no exception. Several of El’s faction followed the high-god’s lead and treated the Lovely Gods in a kindly and welcoming manner. In particular, Asherah and the sun goddess, Shapsu, seemed to have been particularly close to them. The Ugaritic tablets stated:

“Let me invite the lovely gods,
ravenous pair a day old, day-old boys,
who nurse the nipples of Asherah’s breasts . . .
​Sun braids their branches,”
(The Lovely Gods, front of tablet, approximately between lines 20-25).

Despite the quarantining of The Lovely Gods to desert regions for most of the time, El made sure to invite them (as well as other destructive deities) to regularly scheduled feasts of the gods, where both the benevolent and the ruinous entities could mingle together under a divine truce. A damaged Ugaritic tablet described the arrangement:

“Let me invite the lovely gods,
indeed, the baleful ones, sons of…
Those given offerings on high…
in the desert, on the summits…
To their heads and…
Eat of every food,
and drink of every vintage of wine.
Peace, O king! Peace, o queen!”
(The Lovely Gods, front of tablet, approximately between lines 20-25).

El must have cherished the feasts. Like a holiday get-together where relatives near and distant temporarily reunite, it was a time when El could bring together his often-warring children and adopted children, and their associated factions and families, to socialize in peace and tranquility. The Lovely Gods would have enjoyed those occasions, too, for they would have been able to wet their insatiable appetites with the best foods that the gods had to offer—likely a pleasant change from their usual scavenging in the desert.

Thukamuna and Shunama
Thukamuna and Shunama were sons of the high-god, El. Their roles in the pantheon is unclear, and their possible mothers are unspecified. Nevertheless, they were sons that El could rely upon. In one tale, Thukamuna and Shunama helped El walk home when he was drunk after a party. The Ugaritic tablets state:

“El was seated in his drinking-party.
El drank wine until he was full,
new wine until he was drunk.
El went to his house,
he reached his court;
Thukamuna and Shunama helped him along.”
(El’s Drinking Party, front of tablet, approximately between lines 15-20).

From passages such as this, Thukamuna and Shunama seemed to embody filial piety, and the right and proper ways that sons should support their fathers. Unfortunately, little else is known about these brothers, their responsibilities, or their actions in the godly pantheon.

 

Neutral Gods

(gods presented by the Ugaritic stories as not heavily aligned with El, but not particularly in the faction of Baal, either)

Resheph and Habayu
Resheph, primarily, was the god of plague, but he also had a complicated spider web of other associations, such as with war, death, and the underworld. He may have also been connected with some aspect of fertility, similar to how the death god, Mot, could bring beneficial qualities to the earth through the nutrients of decaying matter, as well as when his body was at one time chopped up, roasted, and sown into the earth. It could also be that, as a god of plague, Resheph could potentially use his power to keep disease away from cities. Whatever the case, the plague-god’s reputation was not all bad, and he was identified with both sickness and health. In terms of rank, Resheph was positioned highly and was titled a prince. The Ugaritic tablets list him alongside other major members of the pantheon:

“…Baal the Conqueror,
…Prince Moon,
…Kothar-wa-Hasis,
…the Maiden,
Prince Resheph,
the congregation of the gods,”
(Kirta, Tablet, Column 2, approximately between lines 1-10).

Although Resheph had some good qualities, he was still a killer, too. One Ugaritic tablet mentioned that Resheph killed multiple family members of King Kirta’s first wife. On this, the tablet stated:

“He had wed a wife, but she passed away.
She had had a mother’s clan:
one-third died in childbirth,
one-fourth by disease,
one-fifth was gathered by Resheph,”
(Kirta, Tablet 1, Column 1, approximately lines 14-18).

Resheph was sometimes depicted with a tail, and due to this description, he has also been tentatively identified with another god named Habayu, who was famous for having horns and a tail. Whereas Resheph comes off as more dignified and prestigious, Habayu, contrastingly, was described more like a mischievous and disgusting devil.  A prime example of Habayu’s appalling behavior is an incident where the god smeared his own waste on a drunk individual. On this, the tablets stated:

“Then Habayu confronted him,
lord of horns and a tail;
he smeared him with his crap and piss.”
(El’s Drinking Party, front of tablet, approximately between lines 19-21).

Treated almost like a jester, the gods let Habayu get away with his unnerving pranks, even when the targets of his unsavory actions were other gods. Interestingly, there may have been semblances of moral teachings involved in Habayu’s odd behavior. For instance, his peculiar excrement debacle, although disgusting, could be seen as a rebuke against drunkenness and drunks.

Hirgab and Samal
Hirgab and Samal were the father and mother of vultures, respectively. They both featured in the Ugaritic myth involving the legendary hero, Aqhat. Within the tablets that narrated that story, it was written, “he saw Hirgab, the father of vultures” (Aqhat, Tablet 3, column 3, approximately line 15) and “he saw Samal, the mother of vultures” (Aqhat, Tablet 3, column 3, approximately line 29). In the tale, the violent goddess, Anat, murdered the legendary hero, Aqhat, and his body fell victim to vultures. Danel—Aqhat’s father—took vengeance on the scavenger birds. He prayed to the gods to destroy the vultures, both as a punishment, and also as a way to recover whatever they had eaten. Hirgab, the father of vultures, was struck down by Baal, but then was revived after it was discovered that the fatherly bird had not eaten any of Aqhat’s remains. Next, Samal was struck down, and within her they did, indeed, find remains. No mention was made of Samal being revived in the story, but death was often not permanent for the deities of Canaanite mythology.

Horon
Horon, unfortunately, is a god whose nature has become obscured by time’s erosion of information. It is believed that he was a god associated with the underworld and violence. He also likely had some kind of family relationship with Astarte, presumably as her child. In the Ugaritic tablets, an instance occurred where his name was used as a curse:

“…may Horon smash,
may Horon smash your head,
Astarte, Baal’s other self, your skull.
May you fall at the peak of your years,
In your prime may you be humbled.’”
(Kirta, Tablet 3, column 6, approximately lines 55-59).

Unfortunately, little else is known about Horon from the Ugaritic tablets. He is believed, however, to be identified with Hauron—a god of presumed Canaanite origins that was worshipped in Egypt. Hauron was a god thought to protect herdsmen, travelers, and livestock from the harms of the desert. In Canaanite mythology, the desert was associated with the underworld and deadly deities, including Mot and The Lovely Gods. Therefore, if Horon was a god of the desert, it would explain his underworld connotations.

Rahmay
Rahmay, whose name evoked the concepts of compassion and mercy, was a goddess associated with hunting and the field. Two mentions are made of her in the Ugaritic tablet series concerning The Lovely Gods. Of Rahmay, the tablets stated:

“Rahmay goes hunting . . .
she is girded with lovely might . . .”
(The Lovely Gods, front of tablet, approximately between lines 15-20)

And

“The field is that of El,
the field of Asherah and Rahmay.”
(The Lovely Gods, front of tablet, approximately between lines 27-28).

Unfortunately, not much else is known about Rahmay besides these fragmentary and opaque references. From these quotes, it is known that Rahmay was a strong goddess who was associated with El, Asherah, hunting and fields. On the other hand, it is also possible that Rahmay was simply another title or alter-ego of Anat, the warrior-huntress goddess.

 

Honorable Mentions

(Semitic or Canaanite gods that were not given prominence in Ugaritic texts)

Adonis
Adonis, despite being best known in popular culture by his representation in Greek mythology as an ill-fated lover of Aphrodite, is actually believed to have originally been a god of Phoenician and Semitic origin. This connection can be spotted in the figure’s name, as Adonis likely derives from the Phoenician wording of ‘adōn or the Semitic word Adon, which both mean ‘Lord.’ The concept is similar to the famous title, Adonai (which again means Lord), that is used in the Bible.

Adonis’ original divine sphere of influence is obscure, but his mythology points in a general direction. According to Greek myths, Adonis—due to machinations between the goddesses—eventually found himself, like Persephone, caught in a divinely-imposed living arrangement that forced him to spend set periods of time in the realms of the living and the dead. Given his cyclical movement between life and death in Greek mythology, it is widely believed that Adonis was involved with the fertility cycles of growth, decay, and rebirth. Scholars disagree, however, on which aspect—growth or perishment—should be emphasized. In addition to Greek mythology, Adonis was also identified with other Canaanite, Mesopotamian, Sumerian, and Phoenician deities. These included gods similarly linked with growth, death and renewed life, like Canaan’s Baal, Sumeria’s Dumuzi, and Mesopotamia’s Tammuz.

Hadad and Atargatis
Baal was not the only name in the West Semitic religious community that referenced a god of storms—there is also Hadad, a figure associated with thunderstorms, rain, and weather, in general. Baal and Hadad eventually were seen as the same entity and became interchangeable or fused into Baal-Hadad. Yet, Hadad also had some unique quirks that were not shared by Baal. Notably, whereas Baal’s main consort remains vague in mythology, the figure of Hadad is known to have been specifically paired with a Syrian goddess named Atargatis (who is identifiable with Astarte). Although Hadad and Atargatis were clearly a couple, the relationship between Baal and Astarte is much more uncertain.

 

Summary

In the course of this list, more than fifty specific entities, or groups of entities, from Canaanite mythology have been mentioned. According to the Ugaritic theologians, the most important of the gods—the highest ranked members of the pantheon—include the high-god El, his consort Asherah, the storm god Baal, his sister Anat, the death god Mot, the craftsman god Kothar-wa-Hasis, the love/fertility goddess Astarte, the sun goddess Shapsu, the moon god Yarih, and the plague god Resheph. Also listed were divine attendants of the gods (such as Baal’s maids and Asherah’s Fisherman), as well as offspring of the gods (like the many children of El and Asherah), as well as ancestral gods (the Rephaim) and entities that played an adversarial role in the universe (like the defeated sea god, Yamm, and his faction of monstrous sea creatures). It should also be mentioned that the list is likely not a complete collection of Canaanite (or West Semitic) gods. This list was compiled through the use of English translations of select Ugaritic tablets, such as the aforementioned Stories from Ancient Canaan by Michael D. Coogan and Mark S. Smith. As more tablets are translated into English and become widely available, this list of Canaanite gods might expand. Similarly, it should also be kept in mind that much of what has been written here comes from the interpretation of the Kingdom of Ugarit, which was biased in favor of Baal. Other cities held differing views about the gods and their amounts of power and influence.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Top Picture Attribution: (Left: Canaanite deity, likely El or Baal, c. 14th–13th century BCE; center: Cylinder seal likely depicting Baal and Resheph, dated c. 18th–17th century BCE; right: Israelite ceramic figure, presumably of Asherah, c. 8th–7th century BCE. All three are [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and the MET).

Sources:

• Stories from Ancient Canaan (Second Edition), translated and edited by Michael D. Coogan and Mark S. Smith. Published by Westminster John Knox Press in 1978 (second edition in 2012).
• The Oxford Companion to the Bible, edited by Bruce M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan. Oxford University Press, 1993.
• The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version With The Apocrypha (Fifth Edition, Fully Revised), edited by Michael D. Coogan and associates. Oxford University Press, 2018.
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anath
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yarikh
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kothar
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baal-ancient-deity
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Resheph
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Astarte-ancient-deity
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mot
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Asherah-Semitic-goddess
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shapash
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yamm
• https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%2021&version=NRSVUE
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shadrafa
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hadad
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Atargatis
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Adonis-Greek-mythology
• https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/322889
• https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/327188
• https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/323163