Christine de Pizan (French Writer, c. 1364-1430)
“One shouldn’t refrain from cultivating things which are good and useful just because some idiots use them unwisely.”
Socialism was a family affair for the Mussolini family. In 1883, Benito Mussolini was born in Forlí, Italy, to a blacksmith named Alessandro and a Catholic schoolteacher named Rosa. Besides being a blacksmith, Alessandro Mussolini was also a vocal socialist who wrote about his beliefs in journals and debated his political philosophy in nearby taverns.
In his childhood and early adult life, Benito Mussolini shared his father’s socialist ardor. Mussolini’s first major choice for a career path was in the field of education. He obtained a teaching certificate in 1901, but soon realized that his calling was not that of a teacher. In 1902, he abandoned his teaching job and set off for Switzerland. One of his few possessions on the journey was, reportedly, a medallion decorated with the engraved visage of Karl Marx.
Benito Mussolini made a name for himself as an advocate of socialism while he was in Switzerland. In particular, observers began to notice the young man’s abilities in speaking, writing and propaganda. Mussolini helped trade unions with publicity and propaganda on multiple occasions.
Mussolini’s actions in Switzerland became so disruptive that the Swiss authorities eventually threw him out of the country. He returned to Italy in 1904, where he continued his writing, speaking and propaganda services. Benito Mussolini founded multiple socialist newspapers, including Popolo d’Italia with the subtitle of “Socialist Daily” and La Lotta di Classe (The Class Struggle). His work with these newspapers caught the attention of Italy’s official socialist newspaper, Avanti (Forward), and he was soon hired on as the paper’s editor. During his youth and early adulthood, Benito Mussolini was arrested as a consequence of his socialist beliefs at least five times.
The schism between Benito Mussolini and the socialist movement only came about in 1915, when Italy was debating how it should react to World War One. The socialist movement in Italy, for the most part, rejected the war. Benito Mussolini, however, supported joining the Allied side of WWI, thinking war would act as a catalyst, allowing Italy to change and expand, both geographically and socially. As a result of his pro-war beliefs, Mussolini resigned from his position at Avanti, left (or was expelled from) the socialist movement and joined the Italian armed forces.
It was only in 1919, after his experiences in WWI, that Mussolini rallied his fascist movement and transitioned from being a radical socialist to a staunch counter-revolutionary militant. After swinging from one extreme of the political spectrum to the other, Benito Mussolini adapted his oratory, writing and propaganda skills to bolster his new fascist movement. With a militia of around 30,000 men in black shirts, Mussolini marched on Rome in 1922 and convinced the Italian government to make him Prime Minister. In only a few short years, he would become the fascist dictator of Italy.
Written by C. Keith Hansley.
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The Malleus Maleficarum, perhaps the most influential book during the age of witch-hunts and inquisition, contained many examples of witchcraft within its pages. The authors of the text, Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, liked to accompany their ideas on the supernatural with supporting stories and folklore that they had encountered in their careers and studies. Many of these tales were entirely unsubstantiated, with no mention of location, names or sources. Yet, some of the stories of witchcraft they provided were much more detailed.
In Part II, Question 1, Chapter 3 of The Malleus Maleficarum, Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger recorded one of their more complete stories of witchcraft. Even though the participants in the story (including the accused witch) were not named, the rest of the story was surprisingly thorough compared to other tales of witchcraft in The Malleus Maleficarum. Here is the story:
In the village of Waldshut, located along the Rhine River in the diocese of Constance, the villagers were planning an elaborate party. A marriage was about to occur and most of the village would soon be present to sing, dance and feast in honor of the newlyweds. In fact, out of every single inhabitant of the village, only one woman was excluded from receiving an invitation—a detested, solitary woman suspected of practicing witchcraft.
As the uninvited woman watched, the whole community gathered and celebrated without her—she understandably began to feel wrathful toward her neighbors. Drunk with rage, the woman summoned a demon, intending to use its power to disrupt the wedding extravaganza. Her aim was to create a storm powerful enough to drive the partiers away from the wedding venue, putting a halt to their merriment.
The demon agreed to the plan and magically transported the scorned woman to a nearby hillside, where the lively wedding party could be seen in full swing. Here, on the hillside, the woman began her magic ritual to unleash a terrible storm on the celebrants. Don’t try this at home, kids.
According to The Malleus Maleficarum, the witch of Waldshut summoned a powerful, destructive storm with these three simple steps. First, she dug a small trench in the ground on the hillside. Second, she needed to fill the trench with water. Unfortunately, she brought no water with her to the hillside, but she apparently improvised with her own urine. For the third and final step of the ritual, the witch’s demon companion imbued the trench of liquid with dark magic, unleashing a mighty hailstorm.
As planned, the hailstorm ravaged its way down the hillside and slammed into the wedding celebration. To the witch’s delight, the partiers scrambled and scurried back to the shelter of their houses, seeking protection from the heavy hail. Once safely in shelter, the partiers immediately began to suspect witchcraft—a hailstorm such as that, they thought, had to be supernatural in nature. As the scattered celebrants began formulating these suspicions, they noticed the uninvited woman sneak back into town after the hailstorm had dissipated. Around the same time, shepherds arrived at the village, reporting that they had seen a woman summon a storm on the nearby hillside.
The woman who was not invited to the wedding celebration was soon arrested for witchcraft. The authors of The Malleus Maleficarum, Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, wrote that the accused witch confessed all of the details of the story mentioned above. She reportedly also confessed to a range of other acts of witchcraft, though this was almost certainly under the painful encouragement of torture. In the end, the woman was burned to death for the crime of witchcraft.
Written by C. Keith Hansley.
Sources:
Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 12th century)
“The man who piles insults and injuries upon the comrades-in-arms by whose very help he has triumphed is nothing but a fool.”
In ancient Greek mythology and The Histories of Herodotus, Ethiopia was described as a truly special and unique place. The land was favored by the Greek gods—the poet, Homer, repeatedly wrote of Poseidon visiting Ethiopia within the pages of The Odyssey. Historians consider the Ethiopians of ancient Greek mythology and legend to be largely exaggerated, and possibly entirely fictitious, but the descriptions of these ancient Ethiopians (especially by Herodotus) were surprisingly vivid and intriguing.
First of all, the geographical description of ‘Ethiopia’ mentioned by Herodotus does not seem to point to the modern nation of Ethiopia. If the mythological Ethiopians of ancient Greek legend were based on a real civilization, historians hypothesize the likeliest bet would be a community living in, or south of, the Kush Kingdom near Libya. Also, one of the more popular stories about these ancient Ethiopians, the legend about the Ethiopian Table of the Sun, is often described as taking place in the city Meroë (in modern-day Sudan), where a temple to a lion-god, Apedemek, has been discovered.
Herodotus recorded the story about the Table of the Sun in book three of his history. According to Herodotus, after Cambyses II of Persia subjugated Egypt, he set his sight on Ethiopia. As the first step of his campaign, Cambyses sent spies to investigate the lands of Ethiopia and its people—in particular, they were told to investigate the rumored Table of the Sun. As the spies set out on their journey, all they knew about the Ethiopian Table of the Sun was rumor and folklore. They had heard that in a particular field in Ethiopia, a variety of edible meats always appeared, without fail, to feed the poor and needy that could not afford food in the market. According to the rumors, the food was a gift from the gods, or the earth, itself. With this information, the spies set off for Ethiopia.
Cambyses’ agents found more than they bargained for in Ethiopia. The Ethiopians Herodotus described were thought to be the tallest and most beautiful people in the known world. On average, they could apparently live to one hundred twenty years of age, a feat attributed to their water source, which oddly smelled like violets and gave off a sheen like oil. Furthermore, the Ethiopians were unimaginably wealthy. The spies supposedly saw that the local prison chains were constructed from gold, and dead Ethiopians were buried in clear, crystal coffins. To top it off, when the spies (posing as diplomats) gave a gift of Persian luxuries to the king of Ethiopia, the king was blatantly unimpressed with what Persia had to offer. He even had the gall to warn Cambyses against invading Ethiopia. Surprisingly, of all the things that the spies supposedly found in Ethiopia, the most mundane of them all was the answer to the mystery of the Table of the Sun. The spies discovered that Ethiopian magistrates boiled meat each night and laid out all the food in the field before the first light of morning.
According to Herodotus, when Cambyses heard of Ethiopia’s wealth and cockiness, he immediately set out on an invasion. He pressed out from Egypt toward Libya, but ran into trouble when he reached the Siwah Oasis, near the modern border between Egypt and Libya. Apparently, logistical problems led to famine in Cambyses’ army (and, allegedly, cannibalism), ultimately causing the Persians to abandon their campaign against Ethiopia.
Written by C. Keith Hansley.
Sources:
Snorri Sturluson (c. 1179-1241)
[He is speaking in the character of the Norse god, Odin]
“Truly, I say, all you have been told is equally reliable, even though you have no way to test some things.”
John de Courcy, a Norman knight who had participated in Strongbow’s invasion of Ireland in 1169, mounted an expedition of several hundred men north into Ulster. By 1177, he began constructing Carrickfergus Castle on the shore of Belfast Lough, around eleven miles from what would become Belfast City. De Courcy’s castle consisted of, at the least, walls encircling a bailey, or courtyard, with a great hall or keep in the interior. He was also able to spread his influence throughout most of Ulster, making him a minor king in all but title. Yet, there was a problem. John de Courcy constructed his castle and expanded his influence in Ulster without the permission of his liege, King Henry II of England.
Despite being a rogue knight, John de Courcy managed to live unmolested by the Norman kings of England for decades. He outlived Henry II (died 1189) and Richard II “the Lionheart” (died 1199)—it was the infamous King John who brought John de Courcy to task.
King John sent the powerful Hugh de Lacy (lord of Meath, constable of Dublin, justicar of Ireland, so on and so forth…) to finally end John de Courcy’s insubordination. Hugh de Lacy succeeded in his mission in 1204, defeating John de Courcy and taking Carrickfergus Castle for himself. After around twenty-seven years of relative autonomy in Ulster, John de Courcy’s bold dream was crushed.
Hugh de Lacy did not let his newly obtained castle go to waste. Instead, he improved and added to the walls and towers of Carrickfergus Castle. He also outfitted the gatehouse with a formidable portcullis and directed for more decoration to be added to de Courcy’s castle structure. In the interior of the castle, de Lacy had a vault constructed.
Since that day in 1177, when the rogue knight, John de Courcy, constructed his castle in the territory he had carved for himself in Ulster, it had been (for the most part) continuously garrisoned until 1928. De Courcy’s castle at Carrickfergus remains standing to this day, having survived attacks from the English, Scots, Irish and French.
Written by C. Keith Hansley.
Sources:
Apollonius of Rhodes (3rd Century BCE Greek/Egyptian Scholar and Poet)
“The truth is, we
the members of the woe-struck tribes of mortals
never tread the pathways to delight
with confidence. Some bitter anguish always
shambles along beside our happiness.”
When Pope Urban II announced the First Crusade in 1095, the Norman noble, Bohemond (1050/58-1109), quickly grasped at the opportunity. Of all of the crusader lords that partook in the armed pilgrimage, his motives are among the clearest. As his half-brother seized the great majority of the family’s lands and assets, Bohemond saw the crusades as an unequalled opportunity to amass land, gold and glory. Plus, the spiritual rewards and absolution of sins promised by the pope were also gladly welcomed.
The crusader coalition made their way to the Holy Lands by a route through the Byzantine Empire, which controlled most of the Balkans and much of western Anatolia at that time. To gain safe passage through the Byzantine territory, the crusaders made a costly deal with the emperor, Alexios I Komnenos—the crusaders swore that they would hand over all the lands to the emperor that they captured which were former imperial provinces. Unfortunately for the crusaders, the Byzantine Empire was the surviving remnant of the Roman Empire, which meant that Emperor Alexios claimed as his own almost everything that was captured during the First Crusade.
The crusaders agreed to the deal and the coalition was able to leave imperial lands without too much chaos. The whole situation must have been extremely awkward for Bohemond, as he and his father, Robert Guiscard, had launched a brutal, but ultimately unsuccessful, invasion of the Byzantine Empire during the first half of the 1080s. None other than Emperor Alexios had defeated that Norman invasion, but the old enemies were able to put aside their differences and become hesitant friends, at least for the moment.
By October of 1097, the crusaders had reached the city of Antioch. The siege lasted until June of 1098, when Bohemond won over a mole in the city. With the help of Bohemond’s inside man, the crusading army was able to take the city. In the aftermath of the successful siege, Bohemond staked his claim to Antioch and its surrounding lands. While the rest of the crusading army marched on to Jerusalem (which fell in 1099), Bohemond stayed behind in Antioch, defending the city and cementing his rule.
When the First Crusade was over, Bohemond had no intention of relinquishing his control of Antioch to Emperor Alexios and the Byzantine Empire. That conviction, however, made his position very precarious. On the one hand, Alexios and his imperial army were looking to collect on their earlier agreement with the crusaders. On the other hand, there was a slew of Muslim armies looking to drive the crusader states out of the Middle East. To make matters worse, the powerful Muslim leader, Danishmend, captured Bohemond in 1101, after the crusader attempted to expand his lands toward Aleppo. He remained imprisoned until around 1103 or 1104, and by the time of his release, Bohemond knew he needed more manpower to keep his position in Antioch secure.
By 1105, Bohemond arrived back in Italy, where he would gather political and military support. The details of his trip from the Middle East to Italy, however, remain oddly vague—this is where Anna Komnene, daughter of Emperor Alexios, comes in. In her history (The Alexiad) on the reign of her father, Anna Komnene recorded the interesting gossip and rumor surrounding how Bohemond escaped from the dangers of the Middle East without being intercepted by Byzantine or Muslim forces. Historical note: this account has only been found in Greek/Byzantine sources such as The Alexiad, and has never been included in any other descriptions or histories of Bohemond’s life from the crusade-era.
According to Anna Komnene, Bohemond escaped the Middle East with the help of an elaborate plan of deception and misinformation. For the first step, Bohemond disappeared—he held none of his usual courts, councils or correspondences. Then, he had his agents spread rumors throughout the Mediterranean claiming that the great crusader, Bohemond, had died. When the rumors were noticed and believed, Bohemond procured a coffin, in which he had holes drilled for air. Finally, Bohemond hid inside the prepared coffin and had himself loaded onto a ship crewed by trustworthy sailors. For the sake of authenticity, Bohemond brought with him into the coffin a dead rooster, which would give off a convincing odor of decomposition. With all the pieces of the plan in place, the ship bearing Bohemond’s coffin set sail toward Rome.
Anna Komnene would have us believe that the ship stopped at multiple ports on the voyage to Italy, where mourners showed up to pay their respects to the fallen crusader. Between stops, Bohemond was given food, drink, and—hopefully—some fresh ocean air. Nevertheless, whenever the ship drew near a port or another vessel was spotted, back into the coffin went Bohemond.
One way or the other, Bohemond returned to Italy. According to Anna Komnene, he even wrote a grandiose letter to Emperor Alexios, claiming that he had risen from the dead. Yet, again, it must be stressed that most historians consider this entertaining account to be simply gossip. Bohemond, however, did indeed return to Italy in 1105. Within the following few years, he was able to garner the military support of France and the religious backing of the pope, allowing him to launch another invasion against the Byzantine Empire in 1107. Bohemond would ultimately become a vassal of the Byzantine Empire, but he (and his dynasty that followed him) would long continue to rule in Antioch.
Written by C. Keith Hansley.
Sources:
Confucius (Chinese philosopher, 6th-5th century BCE)
“The gentleman calls attention to the good points in others; he does not call attention to their defects. The small man does just the reverse of this.”
