(Lao Tzu in Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner’s (1922) Myths and Legends of China,via Project Gutenberg and Creative Commons)
Deity and the Dao
Philosophers in ancient China, just like other civilizations across the world, commented about spiritualism and Heaven in their writings. The Chinese ancients either attempted to understand Heaven, or they were respectfully skeptical of what they could not comprehend. Philosophers such as Mozi (Mo Tzu), Laozi (Lao Tzu) and Zhaungzi (Chuang Tzu) defined Heaven to an extent that allowed for the formation of theologies and religions. Confucius and his successors, Mencius and Xunzi, as well as the Legalist, Han Fei Tzu, excluded discussion of Heaven, and focused on the world of the living. Yet, the philosophers who were skeptical of Heaven saw it as important and demanding of respect. Ancient China saw Heaven in many ways: as the sky, nature, a personal deity, morality, and fate. All of the philosophers expressed some degree of spiritualism, yet the degree to which they prescribed expression of spirituality differed greatly from philosopher to philosopher.
The Spiritual World of Mozi (Mo Tzu)
Mozi was the anomaly of ancient China in his view of Heaven. Mozi wrote a theology for a deity that rewarded and punished humankind while the Confucians, Daoists and Legalists held views that Heaven operated unconsciously and could not be understood. Mozi was clear in his writing that Heaven was active. Mozi’s Heaven held a vision for the world and operated by rewarding those who enacted his vision and punishing those who opposed it. Mozi wrote, “For Heaven too shows no discrimination between rich and poor, eminent and humble, near and far, the closely and the distantly related. It promotes and honors the worthy, and demotes and rejects the unworthy” (1). The will of Heaven is for mankind to have universal love. Everyone is expected to express universal love because, “Heaven loves the people of the world” (2). Mozi wrote that there is no way to fool Heaven. Reward only comes from fulfilling Heaven’s command and there is no escape from Heaven’s punishment. Mozi wrote, “Heaven desires righteousness and hates unrighteousness” and that heaven can observe mankind “clearly even in the forest, the valley, or the dark and distant place where no one lives” (3). Despite Heaven’s ever-watching eye, Mozi told his followers not to fear Heaven’s wrath, for Heaven’s will was simple to follow. Mozi described Heaven’s criteria for reward and punishment as, “the clearest standard in the world” (4). To Mozi, Heaven was a deity that was all-seeing and distributed reward and punishment to shape the world.
Mozi’s writings of spiritualism did not stop with Heaven. In clear violation of the religious skepticism of the Confucians, Mozi wrote in detail of ghosts and spirits. Like all of the ancient philosophers of China, Mozi wrote about the sage kings. Mozi, however, used the sage kings to defend his belief in ghosts. He wrote, “Thus, first in the books of Hsia and then in the books of Shang and Chou, we find the existence of ghosts and spirits mentioned again and again. Why is this? Because the sage kings were deeply concerned about such matters. If we examine what is written in these books, how can we doubt that ghosts and spirits exist” (5). Once he justified his belief in ghosts, Mozi categorized the ghosts and spirits. He wrote: “The ghosts and spirits of past and present are of three kinds only: the spirits of heaven, the spirits of the mountains and rivers, and the ghosts of men who have died” (6). Even though Mozi believed in an active heaven and a detailed array of ghosts, he did not believe in extravagant funerals. If a state has “elaborate funerals and lengthy mourning,” wrote Mozi, “then the state will become poor, the people few, and the government disordered” (7). Mozi did not want the spiritual realm to interfere with the efficiency of the living, even though he proclaimed that Heaven was a conscious and active deity that ruled over a world of humans and ghosts.
Daoism/Taoism
The other philosophers that seemed to try to portray a mental image of Heaven were the founders of Daoism, Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Dao was the Heaven of Laozi and Zhuangzi. They were not able to give a concrete definition for the Dao, but they filled their works with imagery and descriptions of how it and the world connected and interacted. Their Dao was the opposite of Mozi’s Heaven. While the Heaven of Mozi is conscious and acts with personal intent, the Dao was described as unconscious and working without an aim. Laozi wrote that the Dao “never acts yet nothing is left undone” (8). He stated that all in existence depended on the Dao yet it “claims no authority” and it “lays claim to no merit” (9). Water was seen as a reasonable expression of the Dao. Laozi praised the characteristics of water for “water excels in benefiting the myriad of creatures without contending with them and settles where none would like to be” (10). Though Laozi described the Dao in many ways, he proclaimed Heaven would be “for ever nameless” and indefinable because it was too constant to describe through a temporal perspective (11). For Laozi, heaven was the foundation of the universe that constantly and unconsciously supported all existence.
Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)
Zhuangzi expanded on, and clarified, the ideas of Laozi. Zhuangzi made more spiritual connections to the Dao and composed further descriptions. He emphasized that everything in existence contained a reflection of the entire Dao, and the best way to respect the Dao was to allow everything in existence to live as the unconscious Dao set it to live, and for as many years as the Dao allotted. Zhuangzi wrote that the way things are originally in nature was the way of Heaven. Yet, humans have a tendency to alter Heaven because of desire. He stated, “Horses and oxen have four feet—this is what I mean by the Heavenly. Putting a halter on the horse’s head, piercing the ox’s nose—this is what I mean by the human” (12). Zhuangzi wrote that the Dao is infused in everything, and that all in existence is a unique expression of the same Heaven. The universe is the “Blowing on the ten thousand things in a different way, so that each can be itself” (13). The symphony of the universe, individual notes creating a single chord, is the Dao. Like with the Heaven of Mozi, the Dao has a universality to it for “heaven and earth are one attribute; the ten thousand things are one” (14). Though all creation holds the Dao in common, there is no Deity to actively enforce compassion. The writings of Daoism had to suffice.
Zhuangzi expanded the original way Daoists viewed spiritualism and how to live their lives. He stated that the man who respects Heaven “lives out the years that Heaven gave him without being cut off midway” (15). He expressed that no one should allow himself or others to be harmed, for “The Way gave him a face; Heaven gave him a form…Heaven picked out a body for you” (16). Zhuangzi used metaphors of family to convince his readers of why the unconscious Dao deserved respect and obedience. He wrote that the Dao begot yin and yang, which spawned all in creation. Therefore, “yin and yang—how much more are they to a man than father or mother” (17). Zhuangzi’s vision of Heaven was that of a sleeping parent that was reflected in entirety in all existing things. All of creation, in respect to the unconscious Dao in everything, was expected to live out all of its natural years, and not to impinge upon the natural years of others.
While most of Zhuangzi’s work focused on the Dao and life, he made sure to comfort his readers who feared death. He did not speak of ghosts or spirits, but he made observations on death and the dead. Zhuangzi wrote “life and death are day and night” (18). Life and death are natural, but have different qualities. Zhuangzi described the shift from life to death, “It’s just like the progression of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter” (19). Though he did not attempt to explain what the dead experience, Zhuangzi wrote that there could be aspects of death that were better than life. He wrote of “the entanglements of a living man. The dead know nothing of these” (20). Zhuangzi’s view of Heaven called for universal respect of creation and he attempted to answer spiritual questions of life and death. The fact that Zhuangzi devoted time to thinking of the realm of the dead makes his work, like that of Mozi, contrast with the works of the Confucians, who limit comments on heaven as much as possible.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
thehistorianshut.com
End Notes:
- Mo Tzu, Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 30.
- Mo Tzu, Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 82.
- Mo Tzu, Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 79.
- Mo Tzu, Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 83.
- Mo Tzu, Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 104.
- Mo Tzu, Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 107.
- Mo Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963. Pg. 70.
- Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching, translated by D. C. Lau. New York: Penguin Books, 1963. Pg. 42.
- Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching, translated by D. C. Lau. New York: Penguin Books, 1963. Pg .39.
- Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching, translated by D. C. Lau. New York: Penguin Books, 1963. Pg. 12.
- Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching, translated by D. C. Lau. New York: Penguin Books, 1963. Pg. 37.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 104.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 32.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 35.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 73.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 72.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 81.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 114.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 113.
- Chuang Tzu. Basic Writings, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964. Pg. 114.
